Adapting to Socialist Society: Right Action - and the Development of
Tibetan Buddhism
Original Chinese Language Author: Douge Cairang (豆格才让)
Deputy Director and Researcher of the Institute of Religion (China)
Tibetology Research Centre
Source: "Journal of the Central Institute of Socialism" No. 4 (2017)
Presiding Editor: Zeng Zhaogui (曾昭贵)
(Translated By Adrian Chan-Wyles PhD)
Managing the relationship between religion and Socialist Society (in a harmonious manner) has always been a common concern for government departments, religious communities and academic communities. From the objective (and inevitable) historical-materialist basis concerning the adaptation (and integration) of an existing religion and social development - and the religious communities themselves actively pursuing a path which adapts to the conditions of a Socialist Society - this paper explains why it is in the best interests of the followers of Tibetan Buddhism to pursue a path that emphasises adaptation to the development of a Socialist Society. This trend is the historical responsibility of Tibetan Buddhism in all aspects of its practice, because this requirement not only conforms to the interests and requirements of the people of the whole country, but also conforms to the interests and requirements of Tibetan Buddhism in and of itself, as such a development directly and positively benefits the monks, nuns and lay believers that follow Tibetan Buddhism.
In April 2016, the National Religious Work Conference was held in Beijing. Thia is where Xi Jinping - General Secretary of the CPC Central Committee, State President, and Chairman of the Central Military Commission - emphasized in his important speech the following observations and guidance:
"To actively guide religions to adapt to Socialist Society is to guide the religious masses. Love the Motherland, Love the People, Safeguard the Unity of the Motherland, maintain the Great Unity of the Chinese Nation, Obey and Serve the Highest interests of the country and the overall interests of the Chinese Nation; support the Leadership of the Communist Party of China, support the Socialist System, and adhere to the Path of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics; actively practice social modes of behaviour that adhere to the core values of Socialism, promote Chinese culture, and strive to integrate religious teachings with Chinese culture; abide by National Laws and Regulations, and consciously accept the management of the State in accordance with the Law; devote religious practice to Reform and Opening up as defined by Socialist Modernization and contribute to the realization of the Chinese Dream that is the Great Rejuvenation of the Chinese Nation!"
How to approach and manage the relationship between religion and Socialist Society has long been a common concern for the government, religious communities and academic communities. In 1993, the Central Government formally put forward the requirement of actively guiding religions to adapt to Socialist Society. The 2001 National Religious Conference was marked as one of the major achievements of theoretical innovation. Then, during November 2006, the Symposium on Tibetan Buddhism emphasized the need to actively better guide Tibetan Buddhism so that its general line of development more closely adhered to the requirements of constructing a Socialist Society. To achieve this objective, there must be active programmes that both progressively unite and guide Tibetan Buddhist believers (and other associated religious people) to the greatest extent possible, whilst never deviating from the constructs of a harmonious society! Since then, it has become the historical responsibility of the religious community to consciously and active evolve towards a theoretical and practical religious path that is compatible with the development of a Socialist Society, because this requirement not only conforms to the interests and requirements of the people of the whole country, but also conforms to the interests and needs of Tibetan Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhist monks, nuns and lay believers. Such activity ensures the survival and development of Tibetan Buddhism itself - as a situation is created whereby there is no contradiction existing between national interests and social harmony. Tibetan Buddhist monks and nuns are responsible for setting a good example by leading this policy and interpreting Tibetan Buddhist theory practice so that it accommodates the expected ‘norms’ of ALL aspects of a Socialist Society.
(I). The Foundational Relationship Between Religion and Socialist Society
After the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, the Communist Party and the Central Government continuously explored and considered all the relevant issues surrounding religious theory and practice within a Socialist Society – and summarized their findings into four distinct categories:
1) The relationship between the Communist Party and the religious communities, that is, the maintenance of political unity and cooperation – emphasising a mutual respect regarding beliefs.
2) The relationship between Central Government policy and religious affairs, that is, the management of religious theory and practice according to State Law.
3) Developing (and sustaining) a progressive relationship that constructs a harmonious Socialist Society.
4) Establishing common, general and universal shared concepts for the development and progression of a Socialist Society.
For this reason, some scholars refer to this analysis as the "Four Theories" developed by the Communist Party and Central Government during their consideration of religious issues during the Socialist Construction Period – which clarified as: a) Co-Operation Theory, b) Management Theory, c) Adaptation Theory, and d) Harmony Theory.
Within this context, the concept of "conformity" expresses the requirement of developing and maintaining harmonious relations. The presence of harmony – equals the absence of conflict. In a Socialist Society, how should the relationship between religion and society be viewed? What is the relationship between religions that exist within “New” China and the Socialist Society this reality represents? How and where should religion be placed and positioned? These are all key questions. Should religion be seen as an alien force to be eliminated, or as a positive force to be harnessed through unified cooperation? Considering China's history and existential reality, the Communist Party and Central Government creatively put forward the "Adaptation Theory", that is, religion and Socialist Society adapt to accommodate one another in an ongoing and progressive interaction.
The "Adaptation Theory" does not require that religions passively conform to the realities of Socialist Society without participating and generating any creative effort, but rather demands active participation in every aspect of constructing a Socialist Society. Religions should become an organic and active part of the healthy development of a Socialist Society. This proposal not only conforms to the themes of social and religious harmony, but also conforms to the interests of the religious communities themselves. Under the conditions of Socialism, the "Adaptation Theory" serves to establish a new method of thinking (and dialectically assessing reality) that enables the Communist Party to approach and solve religious issues in a positive and progressive manner. As soon as it was formulated and explained, this method was positively greeted by all interested parties throughout society, thus contributing to the harmonious relationship between religion and society. Therefore, the emphasis upon harmonious development has laid a strong foundation and paved a firm path. The National Conference on Religious Work in 2001 made the first overall summary of the content by stating that it is important to "actively guide religion to adapt to the realities of a Socialist Society": "To actively guide religion to adapt to Socialist Society is not the same as requiring religious people and believers to give-up their beliefs and passively accept a physical reality they take no interest in or do not care about its development. Rather this approach requires such people to love the Motherland, support the Socialist System, support the leadership of the Communist Party, and abide by the laws, regulations, and policies of the country; and requires them to obey and serve the highest interests of the country and the nation whilst upholding their religious activities. Their effort should be directed to interpret already existing religious teachings so that they align with the requirements of social progress; support the people (and all ethnic groups) by opposing all illegal activities that use religion to harm the interests of the Socialist Motherland and the people - and make continuous contributions to National Unity and the reunification of the Motherland".[1]
First, the general requirement is that of "fitness" which defined as obeying the law. To abide by the law means that religious activities must not violate the law, as well as all the regulations and policies of the country. Why is it a general requirement to obey the law and keep the regulations? Religious believers and non-religious people must all obey the same (secular) Socialist Law which does not discriminate. This is because both religious believers and non-religious people are equally protected by the same Socialist Law which ensures their safety within a progressive society. Furthermore, Socialist Law is ‘scientific’ and generates the best possible material conditions for Socialist Society to harmoniously develop whilst ensuring that the optimum conditions for religious practice continue to exist! Indeed, religious people are often very well-disciplined as they not only adhere to Socialist Law – but voluntarily choose to add extra layers of (religiously inspired) disciplined limitations to their mind and bodies.
Second, the higher requirement of "adaptation" equates to more profound levels of mind-body adjustment. This is a specific requirement premised upon the individuals that comprise religious communities. It means that the religious community, already abiding by the discipline of the law - makes use of its own distinct religious characteristics - which give full expression to the positive factors inherent in their religious teachings that promote social harmony, national unity, and national coherency. For example, "supporting them (referring to the religious communities) in their efforts to interpret religious teachings in line with the requirements of social progress" is a higher requirement for "fitness". “To actively guide the formulation, construction and development of the theory of the adaptation of religion to Socialist Society, for the first time in the developmental history of Marxism, the relationship between religion and Socialist Society has been scientifically clarified, and it has been discerned that under Socialist conditions, religion can follow the law of 'adaptation' within society. This is not only a practical observation of ad hoc conditions but is the consequence of our Communist Party's correct adherence to the Marxist view of religion - as well as being in accordance with the development and changes of China’s social and religious status quo - focusing on solving practical problems, and constantly summarizing new practical experience in religious work, testing scientific assertions and theoretical generalizations, etc”.[2]
2. The Objective Necessity (and Material-Historical Basis) for the Adaptation of Religion and Social Development
(1) The Three Laws of religion inevitably adapting to the society within which it exists.
Religion must adapt to the society within which it is in located within time and space. This is an objective historical law and is inevitable. Regardless of whether any individual likes it or not, from the perspective of (material) historical development, religion must harmonise with the structure of the society within which it resides. Religion is to society - what all existing (material) things are to nature. Within nature - seasons are the climate within which all things must adapt to exist (as without successful “adaptation” these things will die-out); within human society, the prevailing social system is the climate within which religion must “adapt” to exist. Religion must adjust itself to the different and prevailing social conditions. In every society, religion must change according to the society in which it is located and adapt in a manner that enhances its own chances of survival. Therefore, a scientific analysis confirms that religion must adapt to the different social environments it finds itself inhabiting throughout time and space.
The Three Laws of Religion are:
1) The first law of religion states that religions must adapt to the changes and direction of development as defined by the prevailing social and economic base. Religion and economic foundation are both part of the social formation. The social formation is divided into three levels:
a) Productive forces,
b) Production relations (economic base), and
c) Superstructure.
Productivity is the labour-ability of people to conquer and transform nature, and it reflects the relationship between man and nature. The production relationship is the economic relationship formed by people in the process of social production, the social formation through which the production (and transformation) of material is realized - which is the most basic relationship in all social relationships – and embodies the manner in which people relate and interact. The economic base refers to the totality of all aspects of the dominant production relations associated with a certain (historical) stage of development of productive forces.
2) The second law states that religion changes with the development and change of all social formations. Social formation refers to the basic type of society. It distinguishes between the productive forces on which economic relations rest, and the political and ideological superstructure through which these economic relations are produced. Marxist historiography believes that human society can be divided into primitive communist society, slave society, feudal society, capitalist society, Socialism and Communist Society and other basic forms, etc. In Communist Society countries, nations, classes, etc. will die out, and yet religion continues to exist – a reality which demonstrates the adaptability (and strong vitality) of religion.
3) The third law examines the existence and development of religion under political influence. The superstructure is divided into a political superstructure and an ideological superstructure, which are interdependent, and which develop together. The political superstructure is established under the guidance of certain ideas and viewpoints, and once the political and legal systems and other facilities are established, they become a given force that strongly influence people's ideas. The political superstructure dominates the superstructure. Religion belongs to the ideological superstructure, and politics belongs to the political superstructure. Therefore, religion must exist and develop under the influence of politics.
(2). The Historical (Material) Basis for Tibetan Buddhism to Adapt to Social Development
Tibetan Buddhism has a long history in Tibetan areas, and its Sutras, teachings, temple rules and precepts have been passed down for thousands of years. The development of Tibetan Buddhism (from its spread to the present) is a history that is constantly adapting to social development and changes. As a base for the spread of Tibetan Buddhism (and a central link to connect with religious believers), monasteries have integrated politics, economy, culture and education throughout Tibetan history. Tibetan Buddhism is a social entity that integrates various social functions – which has included medical care. A sociologist once gave such an evaluation: "With such a large and multi-faceted organization, with such a large and in-depth function in many sectors of society, there has never been a group in China and abroad that can be compared with it." This objectively illustrates the long history and complex development and evolution of the Tibetan Buddhist monastery management system. There is no doubt that Tibetan Buddhism is first and foremost a belief system, therefore, Buddhist doctrines, precepts and philosophical systems comprise its core content. At the same time, Tibetan Buddhism, like any other religion, also has a material shell that is externalized and restricted by its basic beliefs—the religious entity is the monastery organization and management system. Since Tibetan Buddhism has become an integral part of Tibetan society and has historically been the main ideology and superstructure governing Tibetan areas, the study of the monastery management system cannot be separated from the developmental history of Tibetan society and the central government of successive dynasties. All this is obvious when studying the history of the development and evolution of the governance of Tibetan areas.
Through an investigation and discussion regarding the history and law of the development and evolution of the management system of Tibetan Buddhist monasteries, it can be stated that four different management models can be discerned operating throughout various historical periods, all of which have the characteristics of adapting to social development.
The Four Stages are as follows:
1) The period of the Khenpo management system of Tibetan Buddhist temples mainly refers to the period of the Tubo Dynasty. Its six main characteristics are as follows:
(a) The management form and inheritance of the Khenpo system maintains the original teaching and cultural expression. This is the system and method of Buddhism from India and the Central Plains, where masters accept disciples and transmit the Dharma according to strict culturally defined (spiritual) relationships, which sees each new generation of khenpo teachers pass on the robe and bowl to a certain “chosen” descendant – who becomes the next high lama will eventually inherit the legal title of “khenpo” or “teacher” responsible for perpetuating the line of descent.
(b) This process, although spiritual in nature still needs to be approved by a “Zanpo”, that is a member of the royal family and national government. Although the inheritance of a Khenpo is passed down from master to a disciple as part of a religious process, it still needs to be approved by a “Zanpo” as a political form of quality-control.
(c) From a politically perspective, generational transmission is inseparable from the support of the Zanpo royal family, and it is always under the direct control of the royal family. That is, under royal protection.
(d) The Tibetan royal family perpetuates the system of economic management that supports the running of the Tibetan Buddhist monasteries, therefore, the Zanpo royal family members have always been the political protector and most important economic benefactor of the Tibetan Buddhist system, that is, they guarantee material support.
(e) Changes in the title of the khenpo rank. With the dramatic spread of Tibetan Buddhism through Tubo (or a ‘Greater Tibetan Empire’), the number and sheer scale of Tibetan Buddhist temples increased rapidly in number! This led to the requirement for a vastly expanded management organization system with ample positions of authority becoming available (operating in areas where Tibetan Buddhism had not previously existed). This led to a proliferation of Khenpo titles, which meant that in the late Tubo period, some Khenpo transmission names had to be augmented by lay surnames alongside the monastic names – as the structures of Tibet’s royal society did not properly exist in these ‘new’ areas of conquest!
(f) There eventually developed so many “new” lineages of “Khenpo” that “authority” was decided not through a political affiliation with a local member of the Tibetan royal family (the “old” model), but rather through an entirely new hierarchy defined by spiritual purity, self-discipline and general worthiness. Only the spiritually pure were accepted as qualified to assist in matters of State when deciding political decisions.
2) In the eleventh century CE, many sects of Tibetan Buddhism and local separatist forces depended on each other and began to form a sect-master temple management system in which Tibetan Buddhist sectarian forces and local clan forces became integrated. The primary features of the sect master's management of the temple system are:
(a) The founder of the sect (or his successor) is the highest authority within the sect.
(b) Although the temple has a khenpo position, which is quite important, the holder of this rank is no longer the spiritual person generally in charge.
(c) The temples in this sect are affiliated and the management of small temples is under the leadership and control of the mother temple or the large temple.
(d) A standardized system of temple education and management was developed.
(e) Each sect made use of external forces to strengthen and expand their influence.
(f) Leaders of various Tibetan sects travelled to the Chinese Mainland to seek political unity and support whilst expanding economic opportunities. In addition, during this period of rapid expansion (and replication) of the management system of Tibetan Buddhism outside of Tibet, a new factor developed whereby the Khenpo system of authority and transmission transitioned to that of the living Buddha.
3) As one of the important features unique to Tibetan Buddhism, the reincarnation system used to justify the Living Buddhas concept emerged from its own profound social, cultural and historical background. It was a special measure developed by the upper-level political and religious forces that controlled the Tibetan Buddhist system at that time. The Karma Kagyu School of Tibetan Buddhism was first to skilfully use this interpretation of Buddhist theory and concept which emphasised the "soul reincarnation" that created and justified a Living Buddha reincarnation system. This successful development was soon followed by other sects - including the Sakya sect. It was only after the Gelug sect adopted the Living Buddha reincarnation system, however, that the Tibetan Buddhist system entered a new stage of development. The system involving the Living Buddha's management of temples has its distinctive features which are:
(a) The period of the Living Buddhas management system of temples emerged from the historical stage of feudal serfdom within Tibet society.
(b) Various sects adopted this management system which catered for important, mediocre and insignificant Living Buddhas residing at the centre of each temple. This arrangement highly concentrated all political and spiritual power into the hands of single lamas – a process which saw Tibetan Buddhist temples abandon the original democratic characteristics prevalent within the original Buddhist management system.
(c) The popularization of the Living Buddha reincarnation system significantly impacted the culture of Tibetan Buddhism. The original selfless training mechanisms found within Indian Buddhism, and which were prevalent in Tibet during the post-transmission period, were replaced by the Living Buddha system. This transition generated an upper class within Tibetan Buddhism which became increasingly secular and politicized. This further led to cronyism and the idea of privilege that violated the spirit of Dharma teachings and tarnished the innovative ability often seen within the Tibetan tradition - such as that exhibited by Master Tsongkhapa – the founder of the Gelugpa sect.
(d) Tibetan Buddhism originally emphasised a democratic system of temple management. With the peaceful liberation of Tibet (and other Tibetan areas) - especially the great democratic reforms carried out in the Tibetan areas - a new page in history has been opened! Feudal serfdom was abolished in Tibet and the political system (and production relations) were completely transformed.
On September 2, 1959, the Tibet Working Committee issued the document "Opinions of the Tibet Working Committee of the Communist Party of China on Several Issues Concerning the Three Major Monasteries", which announced the foundational policies, basic principles and overall goals for the democratic reform of the monasteries. In the same year, the district's "Trial Regulations for Democratic Management of Temples" was promulgated. The Charter is comprised of five chapters and twenty-seven articles. It formulates general rules for the democratic management of temples, the protection of civil rights of Buddhist monastics, the composition and responsibilities of the democratic management committee, religious activities and financial affairs, etc. This management strategy emphasises the correct interpretations (and practice) of the Sutras and gives other similar guidance, which began to establish a new democratic system suitable for the Socialist System. Each development stage of these four important historical periods is the best example of how Tibetan Buddhism can adapt to different stages of social development and forms the historical justification for how Tibetan Buddhism can adapt and adjust to the reality of existing within a Socialist Society.
4) The religious communities themselves actively take the path that is compatible with the building of a Socialist Society. This is accomplished through the following guidance:
(a) Identify with the Socialist Society, Support the Leadership of the Communist Party of China, and Love the Motherland!
The leadership of the Communist Party of China and the Socialist Society are the objective environment that defines the existence of religion within modern China. With regards to adaptation, Tibetan Buddhism, first and foremost, must identify with this Socialist Society and love the Motherland! This is the most basic prerequisite for adapting to modern Chinese society. At the same time, it is necessary to bear in mind that “patriotism” is central to both Tibetan Buddhism and Socialist Society and can serve as the corresponding political foundation. Patriotic education is a long-term basic task of Tibetan Buddhist work, and the content of patriotic education should be centred around solving practical problems. This requires conscientiously resisting and opposing erroneous thinking, feudal privileges and infiltration issues that are not compatible with either the Tibetan Buddhist community or Socialist Society. If some believers use this world (and the next world) to one-sidedly exaggerate the differences between Socialist Society and religion - whilst using belief in the next life to deny any connection in this world – then this will be interpreted as a false consciousness that generates a barrier to integration that has no basis in material reality and therefore does not exist. In the past, religious precepts were the main source and legislative basis of customary law in Tibetan areas. Religious beliefs-controlled people’s minds and bodies. Temple management (or Living Buddhas) often came forward to participate in the mediation of social disputes. Other civil (or social) group incidents have played a positive role while raising the authority and influence of religion. Individual temples and Living Buddhas interfered in social affairs such as administration, justice, economy, marriage and education, etc., affecting the political rule of law, undermining the dignity of that law and generating negative religious influences. At the same time, in the management of religious affairs (according to the law) throughout history, whilst establishing normal temple management behaviour, the ideology of feudal privilege and autocratic Living Buddhas was established by the ruling upper class. This negatively affected the democratic management and legal management of temples - which placed Living Buddhas above the temple management! These Living Buddhas far exceeded their spiritual authority by usurping (secular) political power and interfering in how the country was politically administered.
History has repeatedly proven that the main source of social instability affecting Tibet (and the Tibetan areas) throughout the four provinces is the separatist activities of the 14th Dalai Lama clique. The most serious and extensive example involves how the 14th Dalai Lama clique uses religion to infiltrate temples and take control. This process takes only a small number of illegal monks and nuns, and this false religious infiltration pollutes the entire fabric of Tibetan society – causing much pain and danger. The 14th Dalai Lama clique's splitting and infiltration tactics - supported by international anti-China forces - completely pollutes the normally good social order and legal system throughout the Tibetan areas. This is the main source of damage to the entire construction of Tibetan society. The separatist and infiltration activities carried out by the 14th Dalai Lama clique in Tibetan areas, especially the "non-violent" and “non-cooperation” movements and “self-immolation” incidents seen in recent years, have seriously disrupted normal social life in Tibetan areas. This has made the process of governing Tibet (according to law) difficult and has slowed the process of realizing a moderately prosperous society.
(2) Starting with the individual - strengthening self-construction within Tibetan Buddhism - and actively adapting to the Socialist Society:
Religion will continue to exist for a long time in the period of Socialism. Religion will exist for a long time in human beings – but it does not mean that a specific religion will also exist for a long time. Only those religions that have the courage to innovate themselves, adjust themselves, adapt to the society, and are full of strength and wisdom for survival can exist. Religions must adapt to modern society to have vitality. The self-construction of religious groups is an effective means to enhance the vitality of religion in modern society. It is essentially the self-renovation and adjustment of religion which adapts to different times, different environments, different cultures, and different social systems. This process does not require abandoning the essence of religion. At present, for Tibetan Buddhism to develop healthily in a Socialist Society, monks and nuns need to actively strive for self-construction and actively take the path of adapting to Socialist Society. In this work, representatives of religious communities can take the lead in strengthening civic awareness, legal awareness, and equality awareness. This requires a sense of dedication and a suitable leader and role model.
(3) Actively participate in the construction of the Socialist core value system in Tibetan areas, and consciously adapt to the society:
The individual must actively explore the compassionate thought inherent within Tibetan Buddhism. The Buddhist thought of compassion can play a positive role in building a caring society, caring community, and caring family. Love and harmony are the fundamental building-blocks of society. Love between people, love between people and nature, sympathy and compassion for the weak and vulnerable groups, especially love for the people and country are important virtues and which lead to manifestations of great love and great beauty. Compassion can play a special role in the construction of basic civic morality such as the core Socialist values of patriotism, dedication, integrity, and friendliness.
The second is to give full expression to the altruistic thought of Tibetan Buddhism. Compassion, altruism and selflessness are the highest attributes associated with Mahayana Buddhism. If individuals, groups and organizations in this society have only selfish intentions, only seek self-interest, have no thought of caring and helping others, and have no thought and spirit of serving and dedicating themselves to assisting society, they will be without the requisite purity of thought and strength of character to build a harmonious society. For a religious believer who lacks all these things, there are no sentient beings in his heart, no Bodhisattvas in his heart, and he is an ungodly and unqualified believer. On the contrary, if you actively develop and explore the Buddhist idea of altruism and compassion, have a spirit of service and dedication to individuals, groups and society, and use your selfless dedication to build a harmonious society, this is not only in line with the desire to practice Buddhism to liberate sentient beings, but is also in the spirit of selfless dedication. This explains why the core Socialist values of prosperity, democracy, civilization and harmony can contribute to the construction of Tibetan areas.
The third is to promote the thought of equality within Tibetan Buddhism. Equality and tolerance within Buddhism reach its highest theoretical expression, with the idea of equality within Mahayana Buddhism being derived from the philosophical thought found within the dependent origination theory and the idea of all-pervading emptiness. As all sentient beings in the six realms and all things in the world are by their nature empty. Just as all living beings are equal, all things are equal, man is equal, man and nature are equal - and all living beings are equal and should love one other because of this equality. Real life should be premised upon political fairness and equality, legal fairness, peace and equality. Therefore, social fairness and equality are the basic requirements of a normal society. The Tibetan areas should build and promote the Socialist core values of freedom, equality and justice – whilst maintaining social justice and fairness. This is achieved through promoting a social righteousness that purifies social morality. These Buddhist and Socialist attributes can exert irreplaceable (positive) influence throughout the Tibetan areas.
The fourth is to carry forward the idea of gratitude and repayment. Gratitude and repayment of kindness is the basic requirement of Mahayana Buddhism, especially expressed within the Tibetan Buddhism's Refuge Sutra within the "Four Immeasurable Qualities of the Mind". Cultivating kindness is the premise. You must know that all sentient beings in the six realms of rebecoming were once your parents, brothers or relatives, and they were kind to you. cultivating kindness is used to repay any and all previously received kindnesses as part of the cause-and-effect process. The emphasis here is on repaying kindness because all sentient beings in the six realms of rebecoming have been reborn in more than one life as your parents and relatives, just like the mother who gave birth to and raised you, so you must repay her kindness. This is of great significance to the construction of moral theory within real society. A society without a sense of gratitude and without a tradition of gratitude is dangerous and hopeless. An education that cultivates an inner sense of gratitude is a vital ingredient for building an outer harmonious society – as such an education also serves as the foundation for improving the moral characters of the citizens! This is because the strength and moral quality of a population permits the task of building Socialist core values. Gratitude to parents, teachers, society, the country, the Communist Party (which correspond to similar ideas and moral concepts), as well as the popularization of education. This leads to the rediscovery and reapplication of traditional ideas – which are indispensable for the efficient construction of a harmonious society in Tibetan areas - as well as the realization of a naturally affluent society. Foundational work is an important part of Tibetan Buddhism giving full expression to its own unique cultural advantages and distinct spiritual ways in serving the country and consciously adapting to a Socialist Society.
(4) Obeying the law and respecting the law has become a natural custom:
Governing the country according to the law, governing Tibet according to the law, and managing religious affairs according to the law are the main content regarding the Central Government’s strategy for governing Tibet, and it is also the basic requirement for the Tibetan Buddhist community to consciously move towards - whilst adapting to life within a Socialist Society. There are two levels that can be defined as content and meaning. The first level is the national law - which defines temples as social grassroots units - whilst monks and nuns are ordinary citizens of the country. It is the government's responsibility to manage social grassroots units or communities according to the law. Accepting the government's legal management is the duty of grassroot units and the duty of each law-abiding citizen; the second layer concerns Buddhist law and precepts, which regulate the life of the temples. Monks and nuns are religious professionals who study Buddhism and follow the Buddhist law – but as ordinary citizens, they are also duty-bound to follow the law of the country! The temples are regulated by various Buddhist rules which restrict certain worldly activities whilst encouraging certain religious practices. The personal behaviour of the monks and nuns is further regulated by the monastic precepts. Obeying State law is a political reality for all citizens (including monks and nuns), whilst obeying the precepts is only the domain of the monks and nuns. For temples, monks and nuns, the State law and the Buddhist law exists simultaneously and are complementary to one another. The mysterious concept of achieving inner unity is a powerful weapon that is used to maintain the normal order of Tibetan Buddhism. These are the golden steps that bear the Buddha fruit!
Dou Ge Cairang
Deputy Director and Researcher of the Institute of Religion
China Tibetology Research Centre
Responsible editor: Zeng Zhaogui
Source: "Journal of the Central Institute of Socialism" No. 4, 2017
Copyright: Central Institute of Socialism
[This article is an exclusive original, and media reprints must indicate that it is from "Central Social Academy (中央社会主义学院网站)", otherwise, legal responsibility will be pursued. 】
Source: Central Institute of Socialism, No. 4, Wanshou Temple, Haidian District, Beijing, 100081, Contact Telephone: 010-68706114 - Email: [email protected]
[1] Zhu Xiaoming: Special Research on Establishing and Improving the Long-term Management Mechanism of Tibetan Buddhist Temples, Beijing: China Tibetology Press, 2010, p. 153.
[2] Zhu Xiaoming: Research on Frontier Issues in Tibet, Beijing: China Tibetology Press, 2014, p. 345.
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In April 2016, the National Religious Work Conference was held in Beijing. Thia is where Xi Jinping - General Secretary of the CPC Central Committee, State President, and Chairman of the Central Military Commission - emphasized in his important speech the following observations and guidance:
"To actively guide religions to adapt to Socialist Society is to guide the religious masses. Love the Motherland, Love the People, Safeguard the Unity of the Motherland, maintain the Great Unity of the Chinese Nation, Obey and Serve the Highest interests of the country and the overall interests of the Chinese Nation; support the Leadership of the Communist Party of China, support the Socialist System, and adhere to the Path of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics; actively practice social modes of behaviour that adhere to the core values of Socialism, promote Chinese culture, and strive to integrate religious teachings with Chinese culture; abide by National Laws and Regulations, and consciously accept the management of the State in accordance with the Law; devote religious practice to Reform and Opening up as defined by Socialist Modernization and contribute to the realization of the Chinese Dream that is the Great Rejuvenation of the Chinese Nation!"
How to approach and manage the relationship between religion and Socialist Society has long been a common concern for the government, religious communities and academic communities. In 1993, the Central Government formally put forward the requirement of actively guiding religions to adapt to Socialist Society. The 2001 National Religious Conference was marked as one of the major achievements of theoretical innovation. Then, during November 2006, the Symposium on Tibetan Buddhism emphasized the need to actively better guide Tibetan Buddhism so that its general line of development more closely adhered to the requirements of constructing a Socialist Society. To achieve this objective, there must be active programmes that both progressively unite and guide Tibetan Buddhist believers (and other associated religious people) to the greatest extent possible, whilst never deviating from the constructs of a harmonious society! Since then, it has become the historical responsibility of the religious community to consciously and active evolve towards a theoretical and practical religious path that is compatible with the development of a Socialist Society, because this requirement not only conforms to the interests and requirements of the people of the whole country, but also conforms to the interests and needs of Tibetan Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhist monks, nuns and lay believers. Such activity ensures the survival and development of Tibetan Buddhism itself - as a situation is created whereby there is no contradiction existing between national interests and social harmony. Tibetan Buddhist monks and nuns are responsible for setting a good example by leading this policy and interpreting Tibetan Buddhist theory practice so that it accommodates the expected ‘norms’ of ALL aspects of a Socialist Society.
(I). The Foundational Relationship Between Religion and Socialist Society
After the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, the Communist Party and the Central Government continuously explored and considered all the relevant issues surrounding religious theory and practice within a Socialist Society – and summarized their findings into four distinct categories:
1) The relationship between the Communist Party and the religious communities, that is, the maintenance of political unity and cooperation – emphasising a mutual respect regarding beliefs.
2) The relationship between Central Government policy and religious affairs, that is, the management of religious theory and practice according to State Law.
3) Developing (and sustaining) a progressive relationship that constructs a harmonious Socialist Society.
4) Establishing common, general and universal shared concepts for the development and progression of a Socialist Society.
For this reason, some scholars refer to this analysis as the "Four Theories" developed by the Communist Party and Central Government during their consideration of religious issues during the Socialist Construction Period – which clarified as: a) Co-Operation Theory, b) Management Theory, c) Adaptation Theory, and d) Harmony Theory.
Within this context, the concept of "conformity" expresses the requirement of developing and maintaining harmonious relations. The presence of harmony – equals the absence of conflict. In a Socialist Society, how should the relationship between religion and society be viewed? What is the relationship between religions that exist within “New” China and the Socialist Society this reality represents? How and where should religion be placed and positioned? These are all key questions. Should religion be seen as an alien force to be eliminated, or as a positive force to be harnessed through unified cooperation? Considering China's history and existential reality, the Communist Party and Central Government creatively put forward the "Adaptation Theory", that is, religion and Socialist Society adapt to accommodate one another in an ongoing and progressive interaction.
The "Adaptation Theory" does not require that religions passively conform to the realities of Socialist Society without participating and generating any creative effort, but rather demands active participation in every aspect of constructing a Socialist Society. Religions should become an organic and active part of the healthy development of a Socialist Society. This proposal not only conforms to the themes of social and religious harmony, but also conforms to the interests of the religious communities themselves. Under the conditions of Socialism, the "Adaptation Theory" serves to establish a new method of thinking (and dialectically assessing reality) that enables the Communist Party to approach and solve religious issues in a positive and progressive manner. As soon as it was formulated and explained, this method was positively greeted by all interested parties throughout society, thus contributing to the harmonious relationship between religion and society. Therefore, the emphasis upon harmonious development has laid a strong foundation and paved a firm path. The National Conference on Religious Work in 2001 made the first overall summary of the content by stating that it is important to "actively guide religion to adapt to the realities of a Socialist Society": "To actively guide religion to adapt to Socialist Society is not the same as requiring religious people and believers to give-up their beliefs and passively accept a physical reality they take no interest in or do not care about its development. Rather this approach requires such people to love the Motherland, support the Socialist System, support the leadership of the Communist Party, and abide by the laws, regulations, and policies of the country; and requires them to obey and serve the highest interests of the country and the nation whilst upholding their religious activities. Their effort should be directed to interpret already existing religious teachings so that they align with the requirements of social progress; support the people (and all ethnic groups) by opposing all illegal activities that use religion to harm the interests of the Socialist Motherland and the people - and make continuous contributions to National Unity and the reunification of the Motherland".[1]
First, the general requirement is that of "fitness" which defined as obeying the law. To abide by the law means that religious activities must not violate the law, as well as all the regulations and policies of the country. Why is it a general requirement to obey the law and keep the regulations? Religious believers and non-religious people must all obey the same (secular) Socialist Law which does not discriminate. This is because both religious believers and non-religious people are equally protected by the same Socialist Law which ensures their safety within a progressive society. Furthermore, Socialist Law is ‘scientific’ and generates the best possible material conditions for Socialist Society to harmoniously develop whilst ensuring that the optimum conditions for religious practice continue to exist! Indeed, religious people are often very well-disciplined as they not only adhere to Socialist Law – but voluntarily choose to add extra layers of (religiously inspired) disciplined limitations to their mind and bodies.
Second, the higher requirement of "adaptation" equates to more profound levels of mind-body adjustment. This is a specific requirement premised upon the individuals that comprise religious communities. It means that the religious community, already abiding by the discipline of the law - makes use of its own distinct religious characteristics - which give full expression to the positive factors inherent in their religious teachings that promote social harmony, national unity, and national coherency. For example, "supporting them (referring to the religious communities) in their efforts to interpret religious teachings in line with the requirements of social progress" is a higher requirement for "fitness". “To actively guide the formulation, construction and development of the theory of the adaptation of religion to Socialist Society, for the first time in the developmental history of Marxism, the relationship between religion and Socialist Society has been scientifically clarified, and it has been discerned that under Socialist conditions, religion can follow the law of 'adaptation' within society. This is not only a practical observation of ad hoc conditions but is the consequence of our Communist Party's correct adherence to the Marxist view of religion - as well as being in accordance with the development and changes of China’s social and religious status quo - focusing on solving practical problems, and constantly summarizing new practical experience in religious work, testing scientific assertions and theoretical generalizations, etc”.[2]
2. The Objective Necessity (and Material-Historical Basis) for the Adaptation of Religion and Social Development
(1) The Three Laws of religion inevitably adapting to the society within which it exists.
Religion must adapt to the society within which it is in located within time and space. This is an objective historical law and is inevitable. Regardless of whether any individual likes it or not, from the perspective of (material) historical development, religion must harmonise with the structure of the society within which it resides. Religion is to society - what all existing (material) things are to nature. Within nature - seasons are the climate within which all things must adapt to exist (as without successful “adaptation” these things will die-out); within human society, the prevailing social system is the climate within which religion must “adapt” to exist. Religion must adjust itself to the different and prevailing social conditions. In every society, religion must change according to the society in which it is located and adapt in a manner that enhances its own chances of survival. Therefore, a scientific analysis confirms that religion must adapt to the different social environments it finds itself inhabiting throughout time and space.
The Three Laws of Religion are:
1) The first law of religion states that religions must adapt to the changes and direction of development as defined by the prevailing social and economic base. Religion and economic foundation are both part of the social formation. The social formation is divided into three levels:
a) Productive forces,
b) Production relations (economic base), and
c) Superstructure.
Productivity is the labour-ability of people to conquer and transform nature, and it reflects the relationship between man and nature. The production relationship is the economic relationship formed by people in the process of social production, the social formation through which the production (and transformation) of material is realized - which is the most basic relationship in all social relationships – and embodies the manner in which people relate and interact. The economic base refers to the totality of all aspects of the dominant production relations associated with a certain (historical) stage of development of productive forces.
2) The second law states that religion changes with the development and change of all social formations. Social formation refers to the basic type of society. It distinguishes between the productive forces on which economic relations rest, and the political and ideological superstructure through which these economic relations are produced. Marxist historiography believes that human society can be divided into primitive communist society, slave society, feudal society, capitalist society, Socialism and Communist Society and other basic forms, etc. In Communist Society countries, nations, classes, etc. will die out, and yet religion continues to exist – a reality which demonstrates the adaptability (and strong vitality) of religion.
3) The third law examines the existence and development of religion under political influence. The superstructure is divided into a political superstructure and an ideological superstructure, which are interdependent, and which develop together. The political superstructure is established under the guidance of certain ideas and viewpoints, and once the political and legal systems and other facilities are established, they become a given force that strongly influence people's ideas. The political superstructure dominates the superstructure. Religion belongs to the ideological superstructure, and politics belongs to the political superstructure. Therefore, religion must exist and develop under the influence of politics.
(2). The Historical (Material) Basis for Tibetan Buddhism to Adapt to Social Development
Tibetan Buddhism has a long history in Tibetan areas, and its Sutras, teachings, temple rules and precepts have been passed down for thousands of years. The development of Tibetan Buddhism (from its spread to the present) is a history that is constantly adapting to social development and changes. As a base for the spread of Tibetan Buddhism (and a central link to connect with religious believers), monasteries have integrated politics, economy, culture and education throughout Tibetan history. Tibetan Buddhism is a social entity that integrates various social functions – which has included medical care. A sociologist once gave such an evaluation: "With such a large and multi-faceted organization, with such a large and in-depth function in many sectors of society, there has never been a group in China and abroad that can be compared with it." This objectively illustrates the long history and complex development and evolution of the Tibetan Buddhist monastery management system. There is no doubt that Tibetan Buddhism is first and foremost a belief system, therefore, Buddhist doctrines, precepts and philosophical systems comprise its core content. At the same time, Tibetan Buddhism, like any other religion, also has a material shell that is externalized and restricted by its basic beliefs—the religious entity is the monastery organization and management system. Since Tibetan Buddhism has become an integral part of Tibetan society and has historically been the main ideology and superstructure governing Tibetan areas, the study of the monastery management system cannot be separated from the developmental history of Tibetan society and the central government of successive dynasties. All this is obvious when studying the history of the development and evolution of the governance of Tibetan areas.
Through an investigation and discussion regarding the history and law of the development and evolution of the management system of Tibetan Buddhist monasteries, it can be stated that four different management models can be discerned operating throughout various historical periods, all of which have the characteristics of adapting to social development.
The Four Stages are as follows:
1) The period of the Khenpo management system of Tibetan Buddhist temples mainly refers to the period of the Tubo Dynasty. Its six main characteristics are as follows:
(a) The management form and inheritance of the Khenpo system maintains the original teaching and cultural expression. This is the system and method of Buddhism from India and the Central Plains, where masters accept disciples and transmit the Dharma according to strict culturally defined (spiritual) relationships, which sees each new generation of khenpo teachers pass on the robe and bowl to a certain “chosen” descendant – who becomes the next high lama will eventually inherit the legal title of “khenpo” or “teacher” responsible for perpetuating the line of descent.
(b) This process, although spiritual in nature still needs to be approved by a “Zanpo”, that is a member of the royal family and national government. Although the inheritance of a Khenpo is passed down from master to a disciple as part of a religious process, it still needs to be approved by a “Zanpo” as a political form of quality-control.
(c) From a politically perspective, generational transmission is inseparable from the support of the Zanpo royal family, and it is always under the direct control of the royal family. That is, under royal protection.
(d) The Tibetan royal family perpetuates the system of economic management that supports the running of the Tibetan Buddhist monasteries, therefore, the Zanpo royal family members have always been the political protector and most important economic benefactor of the Tibetan Buddhist system, that is, they guarantee material support.
(e) Changes in the title of the khenpo rank. With the dramatic spread of Tibetan Buddhism through Tubo (or a ‘Greater Tibetan Empire’), the number and sheer scale of Tibetan Buddhist temples increased rapidly in number! This led to the requirement for a vastly expanded management organization system with ample positions of authority becoming available (operating in areas where Tibetan Buddhism had not previously existed). This led to a proliferation of Khenpo titles, which meant that in the late Tubo period, some Khenpo transmission names had to be augmented by lay surnames alongside the monastic names – as the structures of Tibet’s royal society did not properly exist in these ‘new’ areas of conquest!
(f) There eventually developed so many “new” lineages of “Khenpo” that “authority” was decided not through a political affiliation with a local member of the Tibetan royal family (the “old” model), but rather through an entirely new hierarchy defined by spiritual purity, self-discipline and general worthiness. Only the spiritually pure were accepted as qualified to assist in matters of State when deciding political decisions.
2) In the eleventh century CE, many sects of Tibetan Buddhism and local separatist forces depended on each other and began to form a sect-master temple management system in which Tibetan Buddhist sectarian forces and local clan forces became integrated. The primary features of the sect master's management of the temple system are:
(a) The founder of the sect (or his successor) is the highest authority within the sect.
(b) Although the temple has a khenpo position, which is quite important, the holder of this rank is no longer the spiritual person generally in charge.
(c) The temples in this sect are affiliated and the management of small temples is under the leadership and control of the mother temple or the large temple.
(d) A standardized system of temple education and management was developed.
(e) Each sect made use of external forces to strengthen and expand their influence.
(f) Leaders of various Tibetan sects travelled to the Chinese Mainland to seek political unity and support whilst expanding economic opportunities. In addition, during this period of rapid expansion (and replication) of the management system of Tibetan Buddhism outside of Tibet, a new factor developed whereby the Khenpo system of authority and transmission transitioned to that of the living Buddha.
3) As one of the important features unique to Tibetan Buddhism, the reincarnation system used to justify the Living Buddhas concept emerged from its own profound social, cultural and historical background. It was a special measure developed by the upper-level political and religious forces that controlled the Tibetan Buddhist system at that time. The Karma Kagyu School of Tibetan Buddhism was first to skilfully use this interpretation of Buddhist theory and concept which emphasised the "soul reincarnation" that created and justified a Living Buddha reincarnation system. This successful development was soon followed by other sects - including the Sakya sect. It was only after the Gelug sect adopted the Living Buddha reincarnation system, however, that the Tibetan Buddhist system entered a new stage of development. The system involving the Living Buddha's management of temples has its distinctive features which are:
(a) The period of the Living Buddhas management system of temples emerged from the historical stage of feudal serfdom within Tibet society.
(b) Various sects adopted this management system which catered for important, mediocre and insignificant Living Buddhas residing at the centre of each temple. This arrangement highly concentrated all political and spiritual power into the hands of single lamas – a process which saw Tibetan Buddhist temples abandon the original democratic characteristics prevalent within the original Buddhist management system.
(c) The popularization of the Living Buddha reincarnation system significantly impacted the culture of Tibetan Buddhism. The original selfless training mechanisms found within Indian Buddhism, and which were prevalent in Tibet during the post-transmission period, were replaced by the Living Buddha system. This transition generated an upper class within Tibetan Buddhism which became increasingly secular and politicized. This further led to cronyism and the idea of privilege that violated the spirit of Dharma teachings and tarnished the innovative ability often seen within the Tibetan tradition - such as that exhibited by Master Tsongkhapa – the founder of the Gelugpa sect.
(d) Tibetan Buddhism originally emphasised a democratic system of temple management. With the peaceful liberation of Tibet (and other Tibetan areas) - especially the great democratic reforms carried out in the Tibetan areas - a new page in history has been opened! Feudal serfdom was abolished in Tibet and the political system (and production relations) were completely transformed.
On September 2, 1959, the Tibet Working Committee issued the document "Opinions of the Tibet Working Committee of the Communist Party of China on Several Issues Concerning the Three Major Monasteries", which announced the foundational policies, basic principles and overall goals for the democratic reform of the monasteries. In the same year, the district's "Trial Regulations for Democratic Management of Temples" was promulgated. The Charter is comprised of five chapters and twenty-seven articles. It formulates general rules for the democratic management of temples, the protection of civil rights of Buddhist monastics, the composition and responsibilities of the democratic management committee, religious activities and financial affairs, etc. This management strategy emphasises the correct interpretations (and practice) of the Sutras and gives other similar guidance, which began to establish a new democratic system suitable for the Socialist System. Each development stage of these four important historical periods is the best example of how Tibetan Buddhism can adapt to different stages of social development and forms the historical justification for how Tibetan Buddhism can adapt and adjust to the reality of existing within a Socialist Society.
4) The religious communities themselves actively take the path that is compatible with the building of a Socialist Society. This is accomplished through the following guidance:
(a) Identify with the Socialist Society, Support the Leadership of the Communist Party of China, and Love the Motherland!
The leadership of the Communist Party of China and the Socialist Society are the objective environment that defines the existence of religion within modern China. With regards to adaptation, Tibetan Buddhism, first and foremost, must identify with this Socialist Society and love the Motherland! This is the most basic prerequisite for adapting to modern Chinese society. At the same time, it is necessary to bear in mind that “patriotism” is central to both Tibetan Buddhism and Socialist Society and can serve as the corresponding political foundation. Patriotic education is a long-term basic task of Tibetan Buddhist work, and the content of patriotic education should be centred around solving practical problems. This requires conscientiously resisting and opposing erroneous thinking, feudal privileges and infiltration issues that are not compatible with either the Tibetan Buddhist community or Socialist Society. If some believers use this world (and the next world) to one-sidedly exaggerate the differences between Socialist Society and religion - whilst using belief in the next life to deny any connection in this world – then this will be interpreted as a false consciousness that generates a barrier to integration that has no basis in material reality and therefore does not exist. In the past, religious precepts were the main source and legislative basis of customary law in Tibetan areas. Religious beliefs-controlled people’s minds and bodies. Temple management (or Living Buddhas) often came forward to participate in the mediation of social disputes. Other civil (or social) group incidents have played a positive role while raising the authority and influence of religion. Individual temples and Living Buddhas interfered in social affairs such as administration, justice, economy, marriage and education, etc., affecting the political rule of law, undermining the dignity of that law and generating negative religious influences. At the same time, in the management of religious affairs (according to the law) throughout history, whilst establishing normal temple management behaviour, the ideology of feudal privilege and autocratic Living Buddhas was established by the ruling upper class. This negatively affected the democratic management and legal management of temples - which placed Living Buddhas above the temple management! These Living Buddhas far exceeded their spiritual authority by usurping (secular) political power and interfering in how the country was politically administered.
History has repeatedly proven that the main source of social instability affecting Tibet (and the Tibetan areas) throughout the four provinces is the separatist activities of the 14th Dalai Lama clique. The most serious and extensive example involves how the 14th Dalai Lama clique uses religion to infiltrate temples and take control. This process takes only a small number of illegal monks and nuns, and this false religious infiltration pollutes the entire fabric of Tibetan society – causing much pain and danger. The 14th Dalai Lama clique's splitting and infiltration tactics - supported by international anti-China forces - completely pollutes the normally good social order and legal system throughout the Tibetan areas. This is the main source of damage to the entire construction of Tibetan society. The separatist and infiltration activities carried out by the 14th Dalai Lama clique in Tibetan areas, especially the "non-violent" and “non-cooperation” movements and “self-immolation” incidents seen in recent years, have seriously disrupted normal social life in Tibetan areas. This has made the process of governing Tibet (according to law) difficult and has slowed the process of realizing a moderately prosperous society.
(2) Starting with the individual - strengthening self-construction within Tibetan Buddhism - and actively adapting to the Socialist Society:
Religion will continue to exist for a long time in the period of Socialism. Religion will exist for a long time in human beings – but it does not mean that a specific religion will also exist for a long time. Only those religions that have the courage to innovate themselves, adjust themselves, adapt to the society, and are full of strength and wisdom for survival can exist. Religions must adapt to modern society to have vitality. The self-construction of religious groups is an effective means to enhance the vitality of religion in modern society. It is essentially the self-renovation and adjustment of religion which adapts to different times, different environments, different cultures, and different social systems. This process does not require abandoning the essence of religion. At present, for Tibetan Buddhism to develop healthily in a Socialist Society, monks and nuns need to actively strive for self-construction and actively take the path of adapting to Socialist Society. In this work, representatives of religious communities can take the lead in strengthening civic awareness, legal awareness, and equality awareness. This requires a sense of dedication and a suitable leader and role model.
(3) Actively participate in the construction of the Socialist core value system in Tibetan areas, and consciously adapt to the society:
The individual must actively explore the compassionate thought inherent within Tibetan Buddhism. The Buddhist thought of compassion can play a positive role in building a caring society, caring community, and caring family. Love and harmony are the fundamental building-blocks of society. Love between people, love between people and nature, sympathy and compassion for the weak and vulnerable groups, especially love for the people and country are important virtues and which lead to manifestations of great love and great beauty. Compassion can play a special role in the construction of basic civic morality such as the core Socialist values of patriotism, dedication, integrity, and friendliness.
The second is to give full expression to the altruistic thought of Tibetan Buddhism. Compassion, altruism and selflessness are the highest attributes associated with Mahayana Buddhism. If individuals, groups and organizations in this society have only selfish intentions, only seek self-interest, have no thought of caring and helping others, and have no thought and spirit of serving and dedicating themselves to assisting society, they will be without the requisite purity of thought and strength of character to build a harmonious society. For a religious believer who lacks all these things, there are no sentient beings in his heart, no Bodhisattvas in his heart, and he is an ungodly and unqualified believer. On the contrary, if you actively develop and explore the Buddhist idea of altruism and compassion, have a spirit of service and dedication to individuals, groups and society, and use your selfless dedication to build a harmonious society, this is not only in line with the desire to practice Buddhism to liberate sentient beings, but is also in the spirit of selfless dedication. This explains why the core Socialist values of prosperity, democracy, civilization and harmony can contribute to the construction of Tibetan areas.
The third is to promote the thought of equality within Tibetan Buddhism. Equality and tolerance within Buddhism reach its highest theoretical expression, with the idea of equality within Mahayana Buddhism being derived from the philosophical thought found within the dependent origination theory and the idea of all-pervading emptiness. As all sentient beings in the six realms and all things in the world are by their nature empty. Just as all living beings are equal, all things are equal, man is equal, man and nature are equal - and all living beings are equal and should love one other because of this equality. Real life should be premised upon political fairness and equality, legal fairness, peace and equality. Therefore, social fairness and equality are the basic requirements of a normal society. The Tibetan areas should build and promote the Socialist core values of freedom, equality and justice – whilst maintaining social justice and fairness. This is achieved through promoting a social righteousness that purifies social morality. These Buddhist and Socialist attributes can exert irreplaceable (positive) influence throughout the Tibetan areas.
The fourth is to carry forward the idea of gratitude and repayment. Gratitude and repayment of kindness is the basic requirement of Mahayana Buddhism, especially expressed within the Tibetan Buddhism's Refuge Sutra within the "Four Immeasurable Qualities of the Mind". Cultivating kindness is the premise. You must know that all sentient beings in the six realms of rebecoming were once your parents, brothers or relatives, and they were kind to you. cultivating kindness is used to repay any and all previously received kindnesses as part of the cause-and-effect process. The emphasis here is on repaying kindness because all sentient beings in the six realms of rebecoming have been reborn in more than one life as your parents and relatives, just like the mother who gave birth to and raised you, so you must repay her kindness. This is of great significance to the construction of moral theory within real society. A society without a sense of gratitude and without a tradition of gratitude is dangerous and hopeless. An education that cultivates an inner sense of gratitude is a vital ingredient for building an outer harmonious society – as such an education also serves as the foundation for improving the moral characters of the citizens! This is because the strength and moral quality of a population permits the task of building Socialist core values. Gratitude to parents, teachers, society, the country, the Communist Party (which correspond to similar ideas and moral concepts), as well as the popularization of education. This leads to the rediscovery and reapplication of traditional ideas – which are indispensable for the efficient construction of a harmonious society in Tibetan areas - as well as the realization of a naturally affluent society. Foundational work is an important part of Tibetan Buddhism giving full expression to its own unique cultural advantages and distinct spiritual ways in serving the country and consciously adapting to a Socialist Society.
(4) Obeying the law and respecting the law has become a natural custom:
Governing the country according to the law, governing Tibet according to the law, and managing religious affairs according to the law are the main content regarding the Central Government’s strategy for governing Tibet, and it is also the basic requirement for the Tibetan Buddhist community to consciously move towards - whilst adapting to life within a Socialist Society. There are two levels that can be defined as content and meaning. The first level is the national law - which defines temples as social grassroots units - whilst monks and nuns are ordinary citizens of the country. It is the government's responsibility to manage social grassroots units or communities according to the law. Accepting the government's legal management is the duty of grassroot units and the duty of each law-abiding citizen; the second layer concerns Buddhist law and precepts, which regulate the life of the temples. Monks and nuns are religious professionals who study Buddhism and follow the Buddhist law – but as ordinary citizens, they are also duty-bound to follow the law of the country! The temples are regulated by various Buddhist rules which restrict certain worldly activities whilst encouraging certain religious practices. The personal behaviour of the monks and nuns is further regulated by the monastic precepts. Obeying State law is a political reality for all citizens (including monks and nuns), whilst obeying the precepts is only the domain of the monks and nuns. For temples, monks and nuns, the State law and the Buddhist law exists simultaneously and are complementary to one another. The mysterious concept of achieving inner unity is a powerful weapon that is used to maintain the normal order of Tibetan Buddhism. These are the golden steps that bear the Buddha fruit!
Dou Ge Cairang
Deputy Director and Researcher of the Institute of Religion
China Tibetology Research Centre
Responsible editor: Zeng Zhaogui
Source: "Journal of the Central Institute of Socialism" No. 4, 2017
Copyright: Central Institute of Socialism
[This article is an exclusive original, and media reprints must indicate that it is from "Central Social Academy (中央社会主义学院网站)", otherwise, legal responsibility will be pursued. 】
Source: Central Institute of Socialism, No. 4, Wanshou Temple, Haidian District, Beijing, 100081, Contact Telephone: 010-68706114 - Email: [email protected]
[1] Zhu Xiaoming: Special Research on Establishing and Improving the Long-term Management Mechanism of Tibetan Buddhist Temples, Beijing: China Tibetology Press, 2010, p. 153.
[2] Zhu Xiaoming: Research on Frontier Issues in Tibet, Beijing: China Tibetology Press, 2014, p. 345.
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与社会主义社会相适应是藏传佛教发展的正道
来源:中央社会主义学院网站作者:豆格才让
如何处理宗教与社会主义社会之间的关系,一直是政府和宗教界以及学术界等社会各方面共同关心的问题,“相适应论”是我国宗教政策理论创新的重大成果之一。本文从宗教与社会发展相适应的客观必然性和历史基础、宗教界自身积极走与社会主义社会相适应的道路等方面,阐释了坚定走与社会主义社会相适应道路是藏传佛教未来发展的必然趋势,也是藏传佛教肩负的历史责任,因为这一要求不但符合全国人民的利益和要求,也符合藏传佛教以及藏传佛教僧尼和信众的利益和要求。
2016年 4月在北京召开了全国宗教工作会议,中共中央总书记、国家主席、中央军委主席习近平在会议上发表重要讲话时强调:“积极引导宗教与社会主义社会相适应,是要引导信教群众热爱祖国、热爱人民,维护祖国统一,维护中华民族大团结,服从服务于国家最高利益和中华民族整体利益;拥护中国共产党领导、拥护社会主义制度,坚持走中国特色社会主义道路;积极践行社会主义核心价值观,弘扬中华文化,努力把宗教教义同中华文化相融合;遵守国家法律法规,自觉接受国家依法管理;投身改革开放和社会主义现代化建设,为实现中华民族伟大复兴的中国梦贡献力量。”
如何处理宗教与社会主义社会之间的关系,长期以来,一直是政府和宗教界以及学术界等社会各方面共同关心的问题。 1993年,中央正式提出了积极引导宗教与社会主义社会相适应的要求, 2001年全国宗教会议为标志,以“相适应”成为理论创新的重大成果之一,特别是 2006年 11月,中央召开藏传佛教工作座谈会,强调要积极引导藏传佛教与社会主义社会相适应,最大限度地团结、引导藏传佛教信教群众和宗教人士,共同建设和谐社会。从此,积极自觉地走向与社会主义社会相适应的道路成为宗教界肩负的历史责任,因为这一要求不但符合全国人民的利益和要求,也符合藏传佛教以及藏传佛教僧尼和信众的利益和要求。为了藏传佛教自身的生存和发展,为了国家利益、社会和谐,作为藏传佛教僧尼,有责任促进藏传佛教与社会主义社会相适应。
一、宗教与社会主义社会相适应的基本内涵
新中国成立后,党和政府在实践中对宗教问题的理论和政策进行了不断的探索和总结,可概括为四个方面:党和宗教界的关系,即政治上团结合作,信仰上互相尊重;政府与宗教事务的关系,即依法进行管理;社会与宗教的关系,即宗教与社会主义社会相适应;人与宗教的关系,即信仰宗教与不信仰宗教、信仰不同宗教的群众之间的关系,共建和谐社会。以社会共同的、普遍的、一般的要求。以此,有学者简称为社会主义时期党和政府对待宗教问题的“四论”:合作论、管理论、适应论、和谐论。
“相适应”,意指相协调、相和谐、不冲突。在社会主义社会中,如何看待宗教与社会的关系?社会主义中国的宗教与这个社会究竟是什么关系?应该怎样给宗教定位?这是一个关键问题。是把宗教看成异己力量,予以消灭;还是看成积极力量,进行团结?结合中国的历史和现实,党和政府富有创造性地提出了“适应论”,即宗教与社会主义社会相适应。
“适应论”,不是要求宗教被动地适应社会主义社会,而是积极地参与社会主义社会的建设,成为社会的健康发展的有机组成部分,在社会主义社会的建设中发挥积极作用。它的提出不但符合社会和谐、宗教和睦的时代主题,也符合宗教界自身的利益。“适应论”在社会主义条件下,为共产党处理和解决宗教问题打开了新的思路、开辟了新的局面,一提出便得到了社会各方的肯定和积极响应,从而为宗教与社会关系的和谐发展奠定了良好的基础、铺就了正确的道路。2001年的全国宗教工作会议,对“积极引导宗教与社会主义社会相适应”的内容作了第一次整体性概括:“积极引导宗教与社会主义社会相适应,不是要求宗教界人士和信教群众放弃宗教信仰,而是要求他们热爱祖国,拥护社会主义制度,拥护共产党的领导,遵守国家的法律、法规和方针政策;要求他们从事的宗教活动要服从和服务于国家的最高利益和民族的整体利益;支持他们努力对宗教教义作出符合社会进步要求的阐释;支持他们与各族人民一道反对一切利用宗教进行的危害社会主义祖国和人民利益的非法活动,为民族团结和祖国统一多作贡献”。[1]
第一,“相适应”的一般要求是遵纪守法。遵纪守法,就是宗教活动不得违反国家的法律、法规和方针政策。为什么称遵纪守法是“相适应”的一般要求,不是由于宗教信仰者信仰宗教才必须遵纪守法,而是因为生活在这个国家、这个社会中的所有人都要遵纪守法。遵纪守法不仅是对宗教界的要求,也是对国家所有公民和团体最起码、最基本的要求,是对全
第二,“相适应”的更高要求是深层次的适应。这是针对宗教界的个性而产生的具体要求,是指宗教界在遵纪守法的基础上,利用自身的特点和优势,发挥宗教中的积极因素促进社会和谐、民族团结、祖国统一。例如,“支持他们(指宗教界)努力对宗教教义作出符合社会进步要求的阐释”就属于对“相适应”的更高要求。“积极引导宗教与社会主义社会相适应理论的提出、形成和发展,在马克思主义的发展史上,第一次科学地阐明了宗教与社会主义社会的关系,阐明了在社会主义条件下宗教可以以社会‘相适应’的规律。这既是卓有成效的实践创举,也是我们党坚持马克思主义宗教观,并根据我国社会和宗教现状的发展变化,以解决实际问题为中心,不断总结宗教工作新的实践经验,作出的科学论断和理论概括。”[2]
二、宗教与社会发展相适应的客观必然性和历史基础
(一)宗教与它所处社会相适应的必然性和三大规律
宗教必须与它所处的社会相适应,这是客观历史规律,具有必然性。不管任何个人主观上喜欢不喜欢、愿意不愿意,从历史的发展来看,宗教都必须要和它所在的社会和谐相处。宗教之于社会,如同万物之于自然。如果说,在自然界中,季节是万物的气候;那么在人类社会中,社会(社会制度)就是宗教的气候。宗教和社会的关系也是这样,宗教随社会状况的不同调整自己。在每个社会,宗教都要根据所处的社会进行变化,采取适合自己生存的方式,来适应不同的社会环境。
一是宗教适应社会经济基础发展变化的规律。宗教与经济基础同属于社会形态的组成部分。社会形态可以分为三个层次:生产力、生产关系(经济基础)、上层建筑。生产力是人们征服自然和改造自然的能力,它体现的是人与自然之间的关系。生产关系是人们在社会生产过程中结成的经济关系,是物质资料生产借以实现的社会形式,是一切社会关系中最基本的关系,它体现的是人与人之间的关系。经济基础是指同生产力的一定发展阶段相联系的占统治地位的生产关系各方面的总和。
二是宗教随着社会形态发展变化而变化的规律。社会形态,是指社会的基本类型。它是以经济关系所赖以存在的生产力根据,以及以这种经济关系为基础的政治的和思想的上层建筑来进行区分。马克思主义史学观认为人类社会可分为原始共产主义社会、奴隶社会、封建社会、资本主义社会、社会主义和共产主义社会等基本形态,并且认为到了共产主义社会国家、民族、阶级等都会消亡,而宗教还会存在,说明了宗教强大的生命力和适应能力。
三是宗教在政治影响下存在和发展的规律。上层建筑分为政治上层建筑和思想上层建筑,二者相互依存、共同发展。政治上层建筑是在一定的思想、观点的指导下建立起来的,而政治、法律制度和设施一旦建立,又成为一种既定的力量强烈地影响着人们的思想观念。政治上层建筑在上层建筑中处于主导地位。宗教属于思想上层建筑,政治属于政治上层建筑。因此,宗教必定要在政治的影响下存在和发展。
(二)藏传佛教适应社会发展的历史基础
藏传佛教在藏区历史久远,其教规教义、寺规戒律在藏区传承已有千年历史,传统的宗教观念在藏族群众心中根深蒂固,对藏区社会具有深刻的影响。藏传佛教从传播到现在的发展就是一个与社会发展变化不断相适应的历史,寺院作为传播藏传佛教的基地和联系信教群众的中心纽带,在藏族历史上是融政治、经济、文化、教育、医疗等多种社会功能为一体的社会实体。曾经有社会学家给予了这样的评价:“这样大而多方面的组织,这样多而深入到社会多部门的功用,在今中外未曾见有一个团体可以与之比较”。这客观地说明了藏传佛教寺院管理制度悠久的历史和复杂的发展演变过程。毫无疑问,藏传佛教首先是个信仰体系,因此,佛教的教义理论、戒律和哲学体系便成为核心内容。同时,藏传佛教与其他任何宗教一样,也具有其基本信仰所外化和制约的物质外壳——宗教实体即寺院组织和管理制度体系。由于藏传佛教已成为藏族社会的有机组成部分,在历史上也是统治藏区的主要意识形态和上层建筑,所以,对寺院管理制度体系的研究离不开对藏族社会的发展历史和历代中央政府治理藏区的发展演变历史的研究。
通过对藏传佛教寺院管理制度发展演变的历史和规律的考察和探讨,可发现在各个历史发展时期不同的管理模式经历了四个历史发展阶段,都有与社会发展相适应的特征。
一是藏传佛教堪布管理寺庙制度。藏传佛教寺庙堪布管理制时期主要指吐蕃王朝时期,其主要特征有:( 1)堪布制管理的形式和传承上保持原来的风格,其管理体系的设置和传法的继承也基本上采用了印度和中原佛教的体制和方法,即循法缘关系收徒授法,一代堪布或导师生前将法衣器钵传授某一高足,其高足就成了本系合法的堪布或导师;( 2)需要得到赞布任命,堪布的传承在宗教上虽然是师徒相传,但在政治上需要得到赞布的任命;( 3)政治上离不开赞布王室的支持,始终处在王室的直接保护之下;( 4)经济管理上的王室供养制,赞布王室一直是政治上的保护者和经济上最大的施主即物资供养的保障者;( 5)总堪布称呼上的变化。随着佛教吐蕃的传播数量的增加,寺庙规模的扩大,管理机构和职位越来越多,堪布称呼泛滥,所以吐蕃末期有些堪布姓氏前要加大和尚的称呼;( 6)堪布有很大的权威,都是由优秀的高僧大德中任选,是王国的精神领袖和导师。
二是藏传佛教教派主管理寺庙制度。公元十一世纪,藏传佛教多各教派与地方割据势力相依靠,开始形成藏传佛教宗派势力与地方家族势力结成一体的教派主寺庙管理制度。教派主管理寺庙制度的最大特征是:( 1)教派创始人或其继承人是本教派最高管理者;( 2)虽然寺庙都有堪布职位,而且相当重要,但不再是总的负责人和精神领袖;( 3)本教派内寺庙有隶属关系,小的寺庙管理受母寺或大寺的领导和支配;( 4)开始形成规范化的寺庙教育管理制度和体系;( 5)各教派借助外部力量巩固和扩大自己的影响;( 6)各教派首领纷纷到内地寻求政治上的支持,扩大经济来源。此外,教派主寺庙管理制度时期,还有个特点是这个制度本身是个藏传佛教从堪布管理者转型到活佛管理制度的过渡阶段。
三是藏传佛教活佛管理寺庙制度。活佛转世制度作为藏传佛教所独有的重要特征之一,有其深刻的社会文化和历史背景,是当时政教上层势力在宗教制度上采取的一种特殊措施。藏传佛教噶玛噶举派首先巧妙地运用佛教“灵魂转世”的理论和观念,创建了活佛转世制度。这一成功的举措,萨迦派等其他教派纷纷效仿,尤其是格鲁派采取活佛转世制后,藏传佛教的活佛转世制度推上一个新的发展阶段。活佛管理寺庙制度有其鲜明的特征:( 1)活佛管理寺庙时期是西藏历史上封建农奴制社会时期,活佛既是各种封建农奴制地方势力和教派势力的最高统治者,又是封建农奴黑暗制度的忠诚拥护者;( 2)各教派形成大中小活佛为中心寺庙管理体系,使权力高度集中,藏传佛教寺庙失去了原始佛教民主管理特色;( 3)活佛转世制度的普及,冲击了藏传佛教后宏期形成的优秀人才培养机制和管理岗位竞争传统,使藏传佛教上层更加世俗化和政治化,进一步产生违背宗教教义精神的特权思想,玷污了宗喀巴大师等革新和追求的宗教纯洁性。
四是藏传佛教民主管理寺庙制度。随着西藏和其他藏区的和平解放,特别是藏区进行伟大的民主改革,历史揭开了新的一页,彻底改变了西藏的封建农奴制政治制度和生产关系。 1959年 9月 2日西藏工委发出了《中共西藏工委关于三大寺若干问题的处理意见》文件,实际上宣布了对寺庙进行民主改革的基本政策、基本原则和总体目标。同年出台了全区《寺庙民主管理试行章程》,章程共有五章二十七条,制定了对寺庙进行民主管理的总则、僧人公民权利的保障、民主管理委员会的组成和职责,宗教活动、财务和学经班的管理等细则,开始建立了社会主义制度下的新型的民主管理制度。这四个重要历史时期的每个发展阶段都是藏传佛教与当时社会发展能够相适应的最好例证,也是藏传佛教能够与社会主义社会相适应的历史基础。
三、宗教界自身积极走与社会主义社会相适应的道路
(一)认同社会主义社会,拥护中国共产党的领导,热爱祖国
中国共产党的领导、社会主义社会是现代中国宗教存在的客观环境。相适应,对藏传佛教来说,首先就是要认同这个社会,热爱祖国,这是能够与现代中国社会相适应的一个最基本的前提,同时,要牢记爱国主义是藏传佛教与社会主义社会相适应的政治基础,爱国主义教育是藏传佛教工作一项长期的基本任务,爱国主义教育的内容要以解决实际问题为中心。自觉地抵制和反对藏传佛教界与社会主义社会不相适应的错误思想、封建特权和渗透问题,如有个别教徒用今世和来世片面夸大社会主义社会和宗教的不同,以此用信仰来世否定今世,用信仰宗教否定认同社会主义社会,这是不正确的。过去,宗教戒律是藏区习惯法的主要渊源和立法依据,宗教信仰控制着人们的思想和精神,寺庙或活佛经常出面参与社会纠纷的调解,地方政府请寺庙或宗教上层人士参与甚至主持草山纠纷等民间或社会群体事件,在发挥积极作用的同时抬高了宗教权威和影响,个别寺庙和活佛干涉行政、司法、经济、婚姻、教育等社会事务,影响社会法治,低毁法律尊严,出现宗教消极因素留下了因患。同时,在依法管理宗教事务,建立正常寺庙管理秩序工作中,由于宗教的封建特权思想和作为历史上宗教统治上层阶级的活佛专制传统,影响着寺庙的民主管理和法治管理,有些活佛凌驾于寺管会之上,企图国家法治变为活佛人治,扰乱或影响了宗教的寺规戒律和国家的法制建设。
历史一再证明,影响西藏和四省藏区社会稳定的主要根源是来自达赖集团的分裂活动,达赖集团利用宗教进行渗透最严重、最广泛的场所是寺庙,制造动乱、破坏社会稳定的主要分子是少数不法僧尼,宗教领域是我国藏区整个社会机体中容易发痛、容易出险的部位,达赖集团在国际反华势力的支持和利用下的分裂活动和渗透是藏区正常社会秩序和法制建设的主要破坏源头。达赖集团在藏区进行的分裂、渗透活动尤其近几年来推行和煽动的“非暴力不合作运动”和自焚事件,严重扰乱了藏区正常社会生活和依法治藏加快实现小康社会的进程。
(二)从我做起,加强藏传佛教自身建设,积极与社会主义社会相适应
宗教在社会主义时期还将长期存在。宗教在人类中将长期存在,并不表示某种具体的宗教也一定长期存在。只有那些勇于自我革新,自我调整,适应社会,富有力量和生存智慧的宗教才能存在,宗教必须适应现代社会才有生命力。宗教团体的自身建设就是增强宗教在现代社会生命力的一种有效手段,它实质上是宗教适应不同时代、不同环境、不同文化、不同社会制度的自我革新和调整,它并不要求放弃宗教的本质特征。当前,为了藏传佛教能够在社会主义社会健康发展,需要广大僧尼积极努力自身建设,积极走与社会主义社会相适应道路,在这个工作中宗教界代表人士带头加强公民意识、法律意识、平等意识、奉献意识,做相适应的领头和榜样。
(三)积极参与藏区社会主义核心价值体系建设,自觉与社会相适应
一是积极发掘藏传佛教的慈悲思想。佛教慈悲思想在建设爱心社会、爱心社区、爱心家庭等可发挥积极的影响力。爱心和谐是社会的根本基因,人与人之间的爱、人与自然的爱,对弱者和弱势群体的同情与慈悲,特别是对人民和国家的爱是大爱和大美的品德和表现,对社会主义核心价值爱国、敬业、诚信、友善等公民基本道德建设可起到特殊的作用。
二是发挥好藏传佛教利他思想。慈悲和利他无我思想是大乘佛教的最高境界,如果这个社会的组成部分个体、群体和组织只有私心,只谋私利,没有对他人关心和帮助思想,没有对社会服务和奉献思想和精神,就没有建设和谐社会的思想和力量,对一个宗教信徒而言,是心中无有情众生,无菩萨心,是一个不虔诚不合格的信徒。相反,如积极发挥和发掘佛教利他无我思想,对个人,对群体和社会抱有服务奉献精神,用自己无私奉献的精神投入到和谐社会的建设,既符合修行佛法解脱众生的愿望,又对富强、民主、文明、和谐的社会主义核心价值观在藏区的建设可做贡献。
三是宣传好藏传佛教的平等思想。佛教的平等与宽容是其最高的理论原则,大乘佛教的平等思想,其理论源头是缘起性空的哲学思想。由于六道有情众生、世界万物本性皆空,所以众生平等、万物平等,人与人的平等,人与自然的平等,一切众生的平等互爱理想,在现实生活中,政治公平与平等、法律公平与平等、社会公平与平等,是一个正常社会应有的基本要求,也为藏区建设和推进自由、平等、公正的社会主义核心价值观,保持社会的公正与公平,发扬社会正气,净化社会道德能发挥不可代替的影响力。
四是发扬好感恩报恩思想。感恩报恩是大乘佛教,特别是藏传佛教皈依经“四无量心”的基本要求,知恩是前提,要知道六道轮回的一切众生,都曾经是你的父母、兄弟或亲戚,有恩于你。知恩报恩中的知恩是因,报恩果。这里强调报恩是指因为六道轮回一切众生曾经都不止一世地转世于你父母至亲,就像生育养育你的母亲一样有恩,所以必须要知恩报恩,藏传佛教四无量心中的知恩报恩思想,对现实社会中道德理论建设具有非常重要的意义,没有感恩意识和没有感恩传统的社会是危险而没有希望的,知恩感恩报恩意识的培养教育,是构建和谐社会的内在要求,也是提高公民道德素质,建设社会主义核心价值观的重要内容和任务。感恩父母、感恩老师,感恩社会,感恩国家,感恩党等感恩思想和道德观念,及感恩教育的普及,感恩传统思想的发掘与整理,是顺利构建藏区和谐社会,实现小康社会不可或缺的基础性工作,也是藏传佛教发挥自身优势服务社会,自觉适应社会主义社会的重要内容。
(四)依法守法敬法成为自然习俗
依法治国、依法治藏,依法管理宗教事务是中央治藏方略的主要内容,也是藏传佛教界自觉走向与社会主义社会相适应的基本要求,在宗教事务和寺庙管理上强调依法管理,可以认为有两层内容和意义,第一层为国法,是针对寺庙是社会基层单位,僧尼是国家普通公民,对社会基层单位或社区进行依法管理是政府的职责,接受政府依法管理是基层单位和每个公民的义务,是硬管理;第二层为佛法即戒律,是针对寺庙是佛门禁地修行场所,僧尼是宗教职业者佛法研修之人,对寺庙和僧尼戒律约束是佛教教规,遵守戒律是寺庙和僧尼的基本功课。遵守国法是公民的政治生命,遵守戒律是僧尼的信仰生命,对寺庙和僧尼来讲国法和佛法是相辅相成,内在统一的法宝,是维护藏传佛教正常秩序的有力武器,更是修证无上佛果的金色梯阶。
(豆格才让,中国藏学研究中心宗教所副所长、研究员)
责任编辑:曾昭贵
出处:《中央社会主义学院学报》2017年第4期
【本文系独家原创,媒介转载须注明来自“中央社院(zhongyangsheyuan)”,否则追究法律责任。】
[1]朱晓明:《建立健全藏传佛教寺庙管理长效机制专题研究》,北京:中国藏学出版社,2010年,第 153页。
[2]朱晓明:《西藏前沿问题研究》,北京:中国藏学出版社,2014年,第 345页。
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