Marxist Critique of the Four Noble Truths - Part 4
4) The Noble Truth of the Path Leading to the Cessation of Suffering (Dukkha Nirodha Gaminipatipada Ariya Sacca)
The Buddha states that deluded beings are caught in the illusion of perception, thought, and view, and that this leads directly to four main misunderstandings which are the basis of human suffering:
a) He perceives permanence in the impermanent.
b) Satisfactoriness in the unsatisfactory.
c) Self in what is not self.
d) Beauty in the repulsive.[1]
The Buddha further states that by the cultivation and acquisition of knowledge, ignorance ceases, and along with it the experience of human suffering and rebirth.[2] This probably means that the human mind becomes ‘free’ of the historical conditioning of Brahmanism, and no longer believes in the notion of rebirth, as there is no physical evidence for its occurrence. Of course, not believing in rebirth completely undermines the Brahmanic caste system, exposing it for the nonsense of imagination that it really is. The Buddha deals exclusively with ‘fact’ and advises his disciples to steer away from fiction when embarking upon the mission of freeing the mind from the suffering of historical conditioning. The theology of Brahmanism operating throughout the society of ancient India, created through cultural conditioning, a psychology premised upon the presence and operation of greed, hatred, and delusion. This is why the Buddha takes these three distinct psychological taints as his starting point. It is interesting to note that the theology of Judeo-Christianity has created identical psychological traits within European culture that are the basis of the modern capitalist system. In the fourth noble truth, the Buddha explains that the psychological suffering associated with the historical conditioning can be countered and eradicated through the practice of three categories of development, namely moral discipline (sila), concentration (samadhi), and wisdom (pañña). Moral discipline creates the conditions for enhanced concentration during meditation, which inturn creates the conditions for the development of wisdom, or the generation of progressive and advanced thought patterns. These three categories are explained through the Buddha’s use of the Noble Eightfold Path (Ariya Atthangika Magga) which is comprised of:
Wisdom Category
1) Right Understanding (Samma ditthi)
2) Right Thought (Samma sankappa)
Moral Discipline Category
3) Right Speech (Samma vaca)
4) Right Action (Samma kammanta)
5) Right Livelihood (Samma ajiva)
Concentration Category
6) Right Effort (Samma vayama)
7) Right Mindfulness (Samma sati)
8) Right Concentration (Samma samadhi)
Although it is well known within Buddhist thought that physical discipline quiets the mind and builds concentration that leads to the cultivation of wisdom, it is also taught that each of the eight steps of the noble path should be practiced, as far as possible, simultaneously, although each aspect should be fully understood within its own singular context. For a human being to be perfect, the Buddha advocates that compassion (karuna) and wisdom (pañña) should be equally developed. It is important to remember that all of the eight steps below require the cultivation of ‘compassion’ (karuna), together with that of ‘loving kindness’ (metta), as these attributes are considered essential qualities of Buddhist wisdom:
1) Right Understanding. The Buddhist notion of right understanding is simple to understand. It is an appreciation, understanding, and acceptance of the truth contained within the Four Noble Truths. Right understanding is nothing more than this. It may be juxtaposed with wrong understanding, which is the non-appreciation, non-understanding, and non-acceptance of the philosophy of the Four Noble Truths. Wrong understanding is in reality the state of suffering premised upon ignorance. To develop insight (through meditation practice and sutra reading), for this predicament to be seen through – this is the beginning of right understanding. Right understanding perceives that all is suffering, which includes why things suffer, how suffering arises, and how suffering is over-come. For the Buddha, who apparently arrived at this understanding without any outside guidance, there is no other valid measure of truth, other than the realisation of the truth contained within the Four Noble Truths. Although this may sound dogmatic, and almost theological in nature, the Buddha accompanies this advice by instructing his disciples to find the truth for themselves, and not rely blindly upon the experiences and teachings of others. This asserts that the Four Nobles Truths is the only valid path to freedom from suffering, but adds that unless a practitioner discovers this truth for themselves, mere intellectual knowledge of it is of no use in freeing the mind. The Buddha is confident that after applying the strictures of stringent meditational development under Buddhist guidance, the reality of the Four Noble Truths will be obvious. The Buddha obviously felt that he had discovered a universal truth that lies just behind the chaos of the searching mind, but which is not limited to the purely psychological. The Buddha’s answer is as much ‘physical’ as it is ‘psychological’, and this is as much a part of right understanding as is an appreciation of the Noble Truths themselves, as the two realisations, for the Buddha, are inseparable. According to this model, all other ways of understanding or interpreting the world are part and parcel of the ignorance that causes suffering in the world, and should, therefore, be abandoned during the drive to secure the cessation of nirvana. The Buddha’s argument is that competing models of reality do not constitute in either theory or practice, true or right understanding. This is because the Buddha has identified human suffering as a combination of adverse psychological and physical experiences which simultaneously originate within the mind and the environment. This acknowledges the connected interaction of psyche and matter without falling into the trap of dualism. The mind and the environment are ‘distinct’, but are not ‘separate’ and isolated from one another. For the Buddha’s ‘right understanding’ to manifest, he criticises Brahmanism and the entire socio-economic system premised upon it, just as Marx criticised the Judeo-Christian tradition, and the subsequent European culture that emerged from the implementation of its totalitarian theology, which was applied to the political realm. Just as Marx ruthlessly criticised everything that came historically before the development of his insightful dialectical method, so does the Buddha relentlessly, and without compromise, dismiss every social convention that preceded his presence in the world. Buddhist enlightenment is ‘looking forward’ into enlightenment, and not back into the apparent comfort of the past, which is comprised of nothing but conditioned suffering. Buddhist ‘right understanding’ is nothing more than the physical and psychological embracing of the need to revolutionise all that exists. Anything less than this is simply viewed as embracing the past and remaining firmly rooted within it. Wrong understanding is the embracing of continuous suffering, whilst lacking the required will-power to do anything about it. Right understanding – the Buddha states – is the realisation that there is no permanent substratum to existence and certainly no ‘soul’ element residing in the depths of humanity. All is change within a coincidental integration and falling apart of the constituent aggregates that for a temporary time form a human being. To mistakenly and continuously grasp changing circumstance as being ‘permanent’, is the essence of human suffering. Permanence is an illusion of a mind that is operating through an inverted awareness – right understanding is the realisation of this predicament and the subsequent abandoning of it; this transformation results in the embracing of the reality of impermanency as the ultimate ‘truth’ knowable to the mind of humanity.
2) Right Thought. The Buddha defines right thought as that activity of the mind that does not produce suffering through the perpetuation of ignorance. Ignorance is defined by the Buddha as being the habitual generation of greed, hatred, and delusion in the mind, a process of volitional activity that is continuously producing suffering associated with negative karma. Right thought is therefore defined as the generation of thought patterns within the mind, which are premised upon non-greed, non-hatred, and non-delusion. The Buddha specifies particular meditation exercises to strip the mind of its previous destructive habits. This is the development of non-attachment not only to objects existing in the physical world, but also to thoughts as they arise in the mind itself. Buddhist non-attachment, therefore, can be realistically defined as the practice of non-identification with thought and associated emotional feeling. The generation of universal compassion and loving kindness through visualisation exercises, literally replaces thought of greed, hatred, and delusion, with thoughts of neutrality, or thoughts imbued with innate Buddhist positivism. A simple exercise from early Buddhism imagines a dead body that slowly rots away. The skin discolours and falls away revealing the repulsive inner organs, muscles and bones. The inner organs fall away, as does the musculature, leaving only the bones. Over-time, the bones eventually turn to dust. This practice proves the impermanency of the physical body, and exposes all the psychological assumptions premised upon it as lies. Nowhere in the decomposition process can a ‘permanent self’ be discerned. A similar exercise can be performed involving sets of actions in the world that are visualised as leading from one deluded behaviour to the next and thus creating suffering as a result. This chain must be broken and so the modification of behaviour is visualised which sees one detached action leading to the next detached action, and the non-generation of suffering in the world. Right thought is the correct management of the thought processes in the mind. As a distinct concept, right thought is the agency for the attainment of Buddhist transformation, or enlightenment. This is because the Buddha defines karma as the product of willed-action (i.e. volition) in the mind, and it is here that a Buddhist changes the direction of their lives. Without the decision in the mind to change the mind together with physical behaviour, there can be no Buddhist path. The mind, which remembers the past, knows the present, and imagines the future, can see the benefits the Buddha describes within his teachings, and can therefore decide to actively modify its own existence. It can seek that which appears to lie beyond its own current boundaries of perception and understanding, and decide to remain unmoved by its negative conditioned habits associated with the past. The human mind first ‘imagines’ the truth of the Buddha’s teaching, and then sets about seeking the reality the Buddha speaks about in concrete terms. This is an envisioning that does not rely upon theology or the teachings of theistic religion. Faith in religion is replaced by confidence (and conviction) in logic. The Buddha’s path is a scientific assessment of the functioning of the mind. The Buddha, through his teaching, transforms the theology of Brahmanism into the philosophy of logic, just as Marx transformed theistic based philosophy into science. Right thought is the keeping away from the creation of greed, hatred, and delusion, and the simultaneous generation of its opposites. Right thought is the inevitable consequence of right understanding, as right understanding represents a certain orientation of mind.
3) Right Speech. As the mind thinks, so does the mouth speak. The use of language is an outer expression of the inner state of mind that has produced it. Language usage has its causes in the conditioned roots of the mind, and once given verbal expression, has untold effects in the environment. Words can be positive, neutral, and negative, but as speech is part of behaviour, the Buddha gave strict instructions as to its regulation. A disciplined practitioner must avoid verbal expressions such as; telling lies, backbiting and slander, hateful talk, enmity, disunity and disharmony, harsh, rude, impolite, malicious and abusive talk, and form useless, idle, and pointless gossip. Right speech is the product of careful control, as is the inevitable consequence of right understanding and right thought. A mind that is straight should not produce speech that is crooked. For the Buddha, although there is a right path of enlightenment and a wrong path of suffering, there is no argument other than the presentation of logic. The Buddha presents his case of cause and effect; one set of behaviours logically leads to more suffering, whilst another set of behaviours leads to the cessation of suffering. Speech which is ‘correct’, expresses wisdom which leads to the attainment of non-suffering. More than this, however, but right speech brings peace and harmony to the immediate environment. As harshness is abandoned, right speech does not allow for aggression as a legitimate form of debate. The Buddha does not advocate ‘freedom of speech’ in the modern, Western sense, (a notion that sees crass ignorance placed on an equal footing with sublime wisdom), but advocates ‘responsibility of speech’. The Buddha does not argue with a philosophical opponent, but rather logically presents his case and is indifferent and disinterested in their response, regardless of whether they listen to his advice or not. This is because the Buddha believes that his words are free of the generation of personal karma (as he is an enlightened being who is beyond suffering), but that the wisdom expressed will have a positive effect upon the world at large. Truth is arrived at by looking into the mind and listening to those who have already trodden the Buddhist path and realised enlightenment. Right speech encourages a movement away from the ignorant gossip associated with the ordinary world, and instead directs all who hear it in the direction of right understanding and right thought. For right speech to be successful, the practice of habitually expressed wrong speech (premised upon greed, hatred, and delusion) must come to an end. Right speech is the expression of non-greed, non-hatred, and non-delusion.
4) Right Action. Behaviour modification is an important part of Buddhist meditational behaviour. Although behaviour is manifest through the physical body, all behaviour, according to the Buddha, originates within the mind and is the product of volitional thought. As the mind wills, so the body acts. As the body acts, so does the mind think. The Buddha views the mind and body as inherently linked, with one continuously influencing the other. Moderation of the body is not just limited to physical action, but includes also the actions of the mind in the form of the kind and type of thought it produces. Mind and body condition one another, and if the mind is to be changed through cultivation, the behaviour of the body must also be moderated away from its usual habits which are premised upon greed, hatred, and, delusion, and which produce continuous suffering. Good bodily action is premised upon non-greed, non-hatred, and non-delusion, and this is seen in the monkish and lay laws that the Buddha developed as a means to facilitate effective physical discipline. The primary vows that cover physical discipline are not to kill, not to steal, not to have dishonest dealings, not to partake in drinking intoxicants, and not to have illegitimate sexual experiences. Right action also includes the helping of others to achieve a good and peaceful life by exhibiting loving kindness and compassion which are guided by wisdom. Good action, according to the Buddha, is action built upon the principles of his teachings. Wrong action, by way of contrast, is premised upon greed, hatred, and delusion. Good action or conduct sets a good example for all to follow and has the potential to build will-power and a positive character. Right action creates the physical conditions for a peaceful and harmonious society. This is because the revolution has already occurred with the Buddha’s wholesale rejection of the Brahmanic religion and the society of his day, which was premised upon it. Good action is the rejection of religiosity and the embracing of reason and logic. When the mind thinks logically, the body will behave in a logical manner.
5) Right Livelihood. The Buddha advises three distinct groups of people to behave in a positive manner; the Sangha, the laity, and the kings and rulers. Specifically, right livelihood is the practice of engaging in an everyday activity of work that does not involve the direct, or indirect harming of other living beings. Prohibited professions include dealing in arms and weaponry, intoxicants, and alcohol, as well as killing animals, and deliberately misleading others. Dishonest and destructive jobs of work are discouraged as they are the source of suffering within the social sphere of influence. Negative professions spread pain and confusion throughout society, and create for the individual concerned, the experience of the requisite suffering associated with such willed actions. Right livelihood is in reality a warning about the generation and accumulation of negative karma for the individual, and for the group. Karma, it must be remembered, is not a moral judgement or a theistic punishment, but is rather simply the logical assessment of an action, or a set of actions, and the probable consequences experienced from such actions. Although exactly what constitutes good or bad karma is relative to the particular culture inhabited, the Buddha appears to universally condemn killing (of animals and humans), dishonesty, intoxication, and poisoning in his advice regarding a wholesome manner of making a living. His advice appears to be aimed at the masses of the common people, but it is clear from the Buddhist sutras that he also advises kings to voluntarily abide by a good standard of ethical behaviour in their private life, and when ruling the kingdom. The third group the Buddha address is the ordained Sangha – or community of Buddhist monks and nuns. Although originally there was no set of rules controlling and guiding monks and nuns in their everyday life, eventually a distinct body of prohibitions was gradually developed and termed the ‘vinaya’ or ‘monastic discipline’. This is comprised of hundreds of rules that strictly regulate the daily interactions with the outside world. These rules may be interpreted as an elaboration (or refinement) of the basic five prohibitions already mentioned. It is important to bear in mind that even in the early Buddhist literature, it is clear that not only monastics, but also laymen and women realised enlightenment, and that this apparent egalitarian approach must be taken into account when assessing the true purpose of the Buddha’s teaching. Right livelihood is the means to create less suffering in the mind and body of the individual, as well as in the minds and bodies of those inhabiting (and sharing) the immediate environment. This demonstrates a very high degree of social consciousness development (wisdom), and comradely solidarity (loving kindness and compassion).
6) Right Effort. In this regard, the Buddha recognises four distinct attributes to this practice of right effort; 1) Prevent evil and unwholesome states of mind from arising, 2) To quickly and effectively dispel any and all evil or unwholesome state that has already arisen, 3) To produce, and cause to arise, good and wholesome thoughts in the mind, that have not yet risen, and 4) To develop and bring to perfection any and all positive, good, and wholesome thoughts already present in the mind. The Buddha uses the concept of ‘right effort’ as the source of all good action, and the antidote to all negative states that arise in the mind and manifest through action in the physical world. Without the will-power to actively check and prevent the arising of greed, hatred, and delusion in the mind, no effective progress in self-cultivation can be made. If there is no energetic will present in the mind, the cycles of pain and suffering continue to function unabated. This is important as the Buddha linked will-power to karma-formation. Every ‘willed-action’ produces either good, bad, or neutral responses dependent upon local conditions. In the deluded mind, this process occurs haphazardly with no control, direction, or discipline, as the mind operates in an uncontrolled and disorganised manner. Right effort is the means of bringing the mind into order. It is the exact opposite of ‘uncontrolled’ and ‘disorganised’ and clearly represents ‘control’ and ‘organisation’ of the thought processes. Right effort is a matter of disciplining all of the processes of the mind, so that only good and positive psychological manifestations are developed and encouraged. Right effort is the development of the motivation that radically changes how the mind (and body) functions in the world. It is the fuel of all radical attainment, and the foundation of all revolution, for without it absolutely nothing different will ever happen either in the mind or world.
7) Right Mindfulness. Right Mindfulness is the exercise of a continuous and profound awareness in direct relation to the state (and functionality) of the mind-body nexus, and has four distinct characteristics:
a) Awareness of the activities of the body (kaya)
b) Awareness of the sensations or feelings (vedana)
c) Awareness of the activities of the mind (citta)
d) Awareness of ideas, thoughts, conceptions, and things (dhamma)
Without this precise awareness, the deluded mind (and its bodily habits) can not be perceived, understood, and corrected in any meaningful way. If a problem is not perceived at its source, then the problem that needs curing is not understood to exist and consequently no action can be taken to solve it. This is to say that if the presence of greed, hatred, and delusion are not clearly perceived in the mind (and understood as the basis of Buddhist delusion), then these taints carry on collectively functioning in the world, completely unhindered by boundary or regulatory principle. Where there is no functioning awareness in the mind of the practitioner, there is no mental or bodily restraint in operation. Unbridled delusion in this unaware state exists in the past, present, and future, and throughout the ten directions. Right mindfulness is a developed focus of mind that is the consequence of a total gathering and concentration of all psychic forces onto a single-point of reference. Within Buddhism, this advanced state of mind is achieved by listening to, and understanding the Buddhist teachings, reading and understanding the Buddhist sutras, and actively restraining and disciplining the mind and its processes during the practice of meditation. Right mindfulness, when developed correctly, is a safeguard against the presence of greed, hatred, and delusion in the mind, and the performance of negative bodily actions in the environment. Mindfulness ensures that positive rather than negative thoughts and actions influence the mind and physical world. In this regard, right mindfulness is closely associated with the production of loving kindness and compassion, as well as the generation of wisdom in all circumstances. Mindfulness as correct attentiveness, easily discerns the difference between pleasant, unpleasant, and neutral sensations in the body and mind, and whether greed, hatred, and delusion, is present in the mind and influencing functionality in the world. Through the propagation of right mindfulness, the Buddhist practitioner is able to change the habitually conditioned psychic patterns that arise in the mind (and the equally conditioned habit of body), from an inherently damaging and negative state of being, into that of a highly positive state of existence. It is interesting to note that included in this cultivation is the ability to perceive that thoughts arise, exist, and then pass away in the mind, and to understand that such is the changeable nature of thought in relation to the physical world it is designed to interpret. Although the physical world appears ‘static’ and ‘ever present’ in its apparent concreteness, nevertheless the Buddha teaches that everything exists in a state of flux, although to human perception, some things change at greater speeds than others. Whatever the case, the ‘changing’ physical world appears to confront the human mind that strives to interpret it through the bodily senses.
8) Right Concentration (Samma samadhi). Right concentration is the action of forcibly controlling the thought processes of the mind so that its entire psychic energy and activity is focused toward a singe-point of reference. This creates a laser-beam type gathering of psychic energy that has the ability to ‘see through’ the habitual conditioning of the mind and body. Right concentration is the essence of correct Buddhist meditation and without its cultivation, the methods of Buddhist meditation would not exist. The practice of right concentration is in fact the exercise of a stern mental discipline. The Buddha defines ‘right concentration’ as the achievement of the unification of mind. Within the Pali suttas (preserved within the Theravada tradition), right concentration is inherently linked to the realisation of the four jhana states of ‘form’, and the further four jhana states of ‘non-form’. The Maha Parinibbana Sutta states that the Buddha, (just prior to his attaining Parinibbana), first entered the four jhanic states of ‘form’, and then the jhanic states of ‘non-form’, before entering the state of cessation of perception and sensation. These states had already been attained by the Buddha during his realisation around 45 years prior to his death, but it is interesting to note that his transition from physical life to physical death entailed the purposeful travelling through of these eight jhanic states again. A jhanic state may be adequately described as a clearly defined ‘state’ or ‘stage’ of ‘meditational absorption’, or ‘meditational attainment’. The four jhanic states of ‘form’ and the four jhanic states of ‘non-form’ are defined as follows:
Four Jhana States of ‘Form’ (Rupavacara-jhana)
1st Jhana Stage
Detached from sense-desires, and unwholesome thoughts – one attains to the first jhanic state – which is the product of freedom gained through the development of non-attachment. Present in this state are the positive attributes of reasoning, reflection, joy and happiness
2nd Jhana Stage
With the stilling of the mind, and the subsequent elimination of reasoning and reflection – one attains to the second jhanic state – which is experienced as inner serenity. This is the realisation of a unified mind through the meditational practice of developing one-pointed concentration. The power of a mind under the influence of right concentration dissolves reasoning and reflection, and retains joy and happiness.
3rd Jhana Stage
Through developing mindfulness and awareness, non-attachment to joy is developed, and the third jhanic state of dwelling in equanimity, mindfulness, and happiness is established. This state of attainment is accompanied by the experience of bodily happiness.
4th Jhana Stage
Through the abandoning of happiness and suffering and by the disappearance of joy and sorrow – one enters the fourth jhanic state. This is the realisation of the state of neither happiness nor suffering, and the attainment of equanimity through mindfulness.
Four Jhana States of ‘Non-Form’ (Arūpavacara-jhāna)
5th Jhana Stage
This is the realisation of the dimension of infinite space. This is achieved through the dissolving (or uprooting) of the thought constructs relating to the perception of the dimensions of infinitude of space, as well as singleness of mind, contact, feeling, perception, intention, consciousness, desire, decision, persistence, mindfulness, equanimity, and attention.
6th Jhana Stage
This is the realisation of the dimension of infinite consciousness. This is achieved through the dissolving (or uprooting) of the thought constructs relating to the perception of the dimension of the infinitude of consciousness, as well as unification of mind, contact, feeling, perception, intention, consciousness, desire, decision, persistence, mindfulness, equanimity, and attention.
7th Jhana Stage
This is the realisation of the dimension of nothingness (which must not be mistaken for profound ‘emptiness’). This is achieved through the dissolving (or uprooting) of the thought constructs relating to the perception of the dimension of nothingness, as well as singleness of mind, contact, feeling, perception, intention, consciousness, desire, decision, persistence, mindfulness, equanimity, and attention.
8th Jhana Stage
This is the realisation of the dimension of neither perception nor non-perception. This is the perfected state which has no thought constructs to uproot and is the realisation of the state of profound emptiness (sunnata).
Right concentration (or ‘one-pointed concentration’) is not mentioned as an attribute of the first jhanic state because reasoning and reflection are still present in the mind. This means that although non-attachment and good behaviour have been developed through disciplining the mind and body, the mind is not as yet ‘stilled’ and still experiences the dualistic movement of thought and emotion. It is only in the second jhanic state that right concentration is recorded as being present, simply because it is a major attribute of the realisation of that state. However, it may be surmised that prior to the realisation of the second jhanic stage, ‘right concentration’ exists in its rudimentary and most basic form, and is the basis from which the discipline to achieve non-attachment (in the first jhanic stage) actually emerges. Although the Pali suttas do not mention right concentration as being present in the first jhanic state, the Abhidhamma literature of the Theravada School certainly assumes that this attribute is present. Indeed, out of this assumption, the Abhidhamma literature developed a ‘fifth’ jhanic state in the real of ‘form’, although strictly speaking this is not canonical. This fact does demonstrate that right concentration is logically believed to be the basis of all Buddhist cultivation, and that nothing can be achieved without its presence – even if that presence is in a rudimentary form. It is through the practice of right concentration (as one-pointed concentration), that the eight jhanic states of attainment (attha-samapati) are realised and then eventually left behind, and the transcendent state of the cessation of perceptions and sensations (sanna-vedayita-nirodha-samapatti) is attained. This attainment of the ‘cessation of perceptions and sensations’ should not be confused with the theoretical ‘fifth’ jhanic state which is speculated to exist within the ‘realm of form’ by the later monkish literature of the Theravada School, and which is not mentioned as existing by the Buddha within the Pali suttas. This Abhidhamma development speculates that as happiness and suffering are abandoned in the fourth jhanic state, the equanimity (upekkha) then realised should constitute a separate and distinct ‘fifth’ jhanic state existing within the real of form, which is solely comprised of ‘equanimity’.
This is really an unnecessary subdivision of the fourth jhanic state into a fifth. For the logic of the Abhidhamma model to make sense and stand up to scrutiny, then ‘right concentration’ has to be imported into the first jhanic state, an assumption that contradicts the teachings of the Buddha as found in the suttas. When right concentration is not present as a developed attribute in the first jhanic state, then the fourth jhanic state can not be subdivided into a separate and distinct ‘fifth’ state, and the logic employed by the Abhidhamma model breaks down. Whatever the case, the theoretical ‘fifth’ jhanic state, as proposed through the Abhidhamma model, should not be confused with Buddha’s definite realisation of the state of cessation of perceptions and sensations. This is because this state is not included as a jhanic realisation by the Buddha, and is treated in the suttas as a separate and distinct realisation beyond the jhanic states. [3]
The omission of right concentration as a developed attribute in the first jhanic state, explains why Buddhist masters and teachers often emphasis moral discipline (sila) as a means to calm the mind and moderate behaviour. It is assumed that a beginner, starting out on the path of purification, will not possess the strength of mind or body associated with developed right concentration, and will need a more peripheral practice. The practice of following vows and becoming aware of the activities of the mind, lays the foundation for this development. Through the establishment of non-attachment, the control of the body increases as the activity of the mind diminishes. This dual approach allows for the mind to be disciplined in such a manner, so that its energies are brought to focus upon a single point. Right concentration is present in the first jhanic state, but in an as of yet not fully developed or realised condition. When right concentration is fully developed in the mind, it is finally acknowledged as effectively existing in the second jhanic state by the Buddha. This is an important point, as it is only through the development of right concentration that meditation can be correctly and effectively practiced, and the higher jhanic (and trans-jhanic state) attained within the system of Buddhist practice.
This article continues with: Marxist Critique of the Four Noble Truths - Conclusion
©opyright: Adrian Chan-Wyles (ShiDaDao) 2014.
[1] Thera, Piyadassi, The Buddha’s Ancient Path, Munshiram Manoharlal, (2005), Chapter 7, the Fourth Noble truth, Right Understanding, Page 96 – reference 4 A ii. 52.
[2] Thera, Piyadassi, The Buddha’s Ancient Path, Munshiram Manoharlal, (2005), Chapter 7, the Fourth Noble truth, Right Understanding, Page 96 – reference 1 S. ii. 23. Discourses 7, 8, 9 abridged.
[3] Rahula, Walpola, Zen & the Taming of the Bull – Towards the Definition of Buddhist Thought, Gordon Fraser, (1978), Pages 101-109 – Chapter 10: A Comparative Study of Dhaynas according to Theravada, Sarvastivada and Mahayana. In this research, the Ven. Rahula demonstrates that the Sarvastivada and Mahayana Schools retain a teaching regarding the jhanic states that is closer to the original Pali suttas, than that developed within the later Theravada Abhidhamma tradition which postulates a ‘fifth’ jhana existing in the realm of ‘form’, even though the Buddha makes no mention of this.
The Buddha states that deluded beings are caught in the illusion of perception, thought, and view, and that this leads directly to four main misunderstandings which are the basis of human suffering:
a) He perceives permanence in the impermanent.
b) Satisfactoriness in the unsatisfactory.
c) Self in what is not self.
d) Beauty in the repulsive.[1]
The Buddha further states that by the cultivation and acquisition of knowledge, ignorance ceases, and along with it the experience of human suffering and rebirth.[2] This probably means that the human mind becomes ‘free’ of the historical conditioning of Brahmanism, and no longer believes in the notion of rebirth, as there is no physical evidence for its occurrence. Of course, not believing in rebirth completely undermines the Brahmanic caste system, exposing it for the nonsense of imagination that it really is. The Buddha deals exclusively with ‘fact’ and advises his disciples to steer away from fiction when embarking upon the mission of freeing the mind from the suffering of historical conditioning. The theology of Brahmanism operating throughout the society of ancient India, created through cultural conditioning, a psychology premised upon the presence and operation of greed, hatred, and delusion. This is why the Buddha takes these three distinct psychological taints as his starting point. It is interesting to note that the theology of Judeo-Christianity has created identical psychological traits within European culture that are the basis of the modern capitalist system. In the fourth noble truth, the Buddha explains that the psychological suffering associated with the historical conditioning can be countered and eradicated through the practice of three categories of development, namely moral discipline (sila), concentration (samadhi), and wisdom (pañña). Moral discipline creates the conditions for enhanced concentration during meditation, which inturn creates the conditions for the development of wisdom, or the generation of progressive and advanced thought patterns. These three categories are explained through the Buddha’s use of the Noble Eightfold Path (Ariya Atthangika Magga) which is comprised of:
Wisdom Category
1) Right Understanding (Samma ditthi)
2) Right Thought (Samma sankappa)
Moral Discipline Category
3) Right Speech (Samma vaca)
4) Right Action (Samma kammanta)
5) Right Livelihood (Samma ajiva)
Concentration Category
6) Right Effort (Samma vayama)
7) Right Mindfulness (Samma sati)
8) Right Concentration (Samma samadhi)
Although it is well known within Buddhist thought that physical discipline quiets the mind and builds concentration that leads to the cultivation of wisdom, it is also taught that each of the eight steps of the noble path should be practiced, as far as possible, simultaneously, although each aspect should be fully understood within its own singular context. For a human being to be perfect, the Buddha advocates that compassion (karuna) and wisdom (pañña) should be equally developed. It is important to remember that all of the eight steps below require the cultivation of ‘compassion’ (karuna), together with that of ‘loving kindness’ (metta), as these attributes are considered essential qualities of Buddhist wisdom:
1) Right Understanding. The Buddhist notion of right understanding is simple to understand. It is an appreciation, understanding, and acceptance of the truth contained within the Four Noble Truths. Right understanding is nothing more than this. It may be juxtaposed with wrong understanding, which is the non-appreciation, non-understanding, and non-acceptance of the philosophy of the Four Noble Truths. Wrong understanding is in reality the state of suffering premised upon ignorance. To develop insight (through meditation practice and sutra reading), for this predicament to be seen through – this is the beginning of right understanding. Right understanding perceives that all is suffering, which includes why things suffer, how suffering arises, and how suffering is over-come. For the Buddha, who apparently arrived at this understanding without any outside guidance, there is no other valid measure of truth, other than the realisation of the truth contained within the Four Noble Truths. Although this may sound dogmatic, and almost theological in nature, the Buddha accompanies this advice by instructing his disciples to find the truth for themselves, and not rely blindly upon the experiences and teachings of others. This asserts that the Four Nobles Truths is the only valid path to freedom from suffering, but adds that unless a practitioner discovers this truth for themselves, mere intellectual knowledge of it is of no use in freeing the mind. The Buddha is confident that after applying the strictures of stringent meditational development under Buddhist guidance, the reality of the Four Noble Truths will be obvious. The Buddha obviously felt that he had discovered a universal truth that lies just behind the chaos of the searching mind, but which is not limited to the purely psychological. The Buddha’s answer is as much ‘physical’ as it is ‘psychological’, and this is as much a part of right understanding as is an appreciation of the Noble Truths themselves, as the two realisations, for the Buddha, are inseparable. According to this model, all other ways of understanding or interpreting the world are part and parcel of the ignorance that causes suffering in the world, and should, therefore, be abandoned during the drive to secure the cessation of nirvana. The Buddha’s argument is that competing models of reality do not constitute in either theory or practice, true or right understanding. This is because the Buddha has identified human suffering as a combination of adverse psychological and physical experiences which simultaneously originate within the mind and the environment. This acknowledges the connected interaction of psyche and matter without falling into the trap of dualism. The mind and the environment are ‘distinct’, but are not ‘separate’ and isolated from one another. For the Buddha’s ‘right understanding’ to manifest, he criticises Brahmanism and the entire socio-economic system premised upon it, just as Marx criticised the Judeo-Christian tradition, and the subsequent European culture that emerged from the implementation of its totalitarian theology, which was applied to the political realm. Just as Marx ruthlessly criticised everything that came historically before the development of his insightful dialectical method, so does the Buddha relentlessly, and without compromise, dismiss every social convention that preceded his presence in the world. Buddhist enlightenment is ‘looking forward’ into enlightenment, and not back into the apparent comfort of the past, which is comprised of nothing but conditioned suffering. Buddhist ‘right understanding’ is nothing more than the physical and psychological embracing of the need to revolutionise all that exists. Anything less than this is simply viewed as embracing the past and remaining firmly rooted within it. Wrong understanding is the embracing of continuous suffering, whilst lacking the required will-power to do anything about it. Right understanding – the Buddha states – is the realisation that there is no permanent substratum to existence and certainly no ‘soul’ element residing in the depths of humanity. All is change within a coincidental integration and falling apart of the constituent aggregates that for a temporary time form a human being. To mistakenly and continuously grasp changing circumstance as being ‘permanent’, is the essence of human suffering. Permanence is an illusion of a mind that is operating through an inverted awareness – right understanding is the realisation of this predicament and the subsequent abandoning of it; this transformation results in the embracing of the reality of impermanency as the ultimate ‘truth’ knowable to the mind of humanity.
2) Right Thought. The Buddha defines right thought as that activity of the mind that does not produce suffering through the perpetuation of ignorance. Ignorance is defined by the Buddha as being the habitual generation of greed, hatred, and delusion in the mind, a process of volitional activity that is continuously producing suffering associated with negative karma. Right thought is therefore defined as the generation of thought patterns within the mind, which are premised upon non-greed, non-hatred, and non-delusion. The Buddha specifies particular meditation exercises to strip the mind of its previous destructive habits. This is the development of non-attachment not only to objects existing in the physical world, but also to thoughts as they arise in the mind itself. Buddhist non-attachment, therefore, can be realistically defined as the practice of non-identification with thought and associated emotional feeling. The generation of universal compassion and loving kindness through visualisation exercises, literally replaces thought of greed, hatred, and delusion, with thoughts of neutrality, or thoughts imbued with innate Buddhist positivism. A simple exercise from early Buddhism imagines a dead body that slowly rots away. The skin discolours and falls away revealing the repulsive inner organs, muscles and bones. The inner organs fall away, as does the musculature, leaving only the bones. Over-time, the bones eventually turn to dust. This practice proves the impermanency of the physical body, and exposes all the psychological assumptions premised upon it as lies. Nowhere in the decomposition process can a ‘permanent self’ be discerned. A similar exercise can be performed involving sets of actions in the world that are visualised as leading from one deluded behaviour to the next and thus creating suffering as a result. This chain must be broken and so the modification of behaviour is visualised which sees one detached action leading to the next detached action, and the non-generation of suffering in the world. Right thought is the correct management of the thought processes in the mind. As a distinct concept, right thought is the agency for the attainment of Buddhist transformation, or enlightenment. This is because the Buddha defines karma as the product of willed-action (i.e. volition) in the mind, and it is here that a Buddhist changes the direction of their lives. Without the decision in the mind to change the mind together with physical behaviour, there can be no Buddhist path. The mind, which remembers the past, knows the present, and imagines the future, can see the benefits the Buddha describes within his teachings, and can therefore decide to actively modify its own existence. It can seek that which appears to lie beyond its own current boundaries of perception and understanding, and decide to remain unmoved by its negative conditioned habits associated with the past. The human mind first ‘imagines’ the truth of the Buddha’s teaching, and then sets about seeking the reality the Buddha speaks about in concrete terms. This is an envisioning that does not rely upon theology or the teachings of theistic religion. Faith in religion is replaced by confidence (and conviction) in logic. The Buddha’s path is a scientific assessment of the functioning of the mind. The Buddha, through his teaching, transforms the theology of Brahmanism into the philosophy of logic, just as Marx transformed theistic based philosophy into science. Right thought is the keeping away from the creation of greed, hatred, and delusion, and the simultaneous generation of its opposites. Right thought is the inevitable consequence of right understanding, as right understanding represents a certain orientation of mind.
3) Right Speech. As the mind thinks, so does the mouth speak. The use of language is an outer expression of the inner state of mind that has produced it. Language usage has its causes in the conditioned roots of the mind, and once given verbal expression, has untold effects in the environment. Words can be positive, neutral, and negative, but as speech is part of behaviour, the Buddha gave strict instructions as to its regulation. A disciplined practitioner must avoid verbal expressions such as; telling lies, backbiting and slander, hateful talk, enmity, disunity and disharmony, harsh, rude, impolite, malicious and abusive talk, and form useless, idle, and pointless gossip. Right speech is the product of careful control, as is the inevitable consequence of right understanding and right thought. A mind that is straight should not produce speech that is crooked. For the Buddha, although there is a right path of enlightenment and a wrong path of suffering, there is no argument other than the presentation of logic. The Buddha presents his case of cause and effect; one set of behaviours logically leads to more suffering, whilst another set of behaviours leads to the cessation of suffering. Speech which is ‘correct’, expresses wisdom which leads to the attainment of non-suffering. More than this, however, but right speech brings peace and harmony to the immediate environment. As harshness is abandoned, right speech does not allow for aggression as a legitimate form of debate. The Buddha does not advocate ‘freedom of speech’ in the modern, Western sense, (a notion that sees crass ignorance placed on an equal footing with sublime wisdom), but advocates ‘responsibility of speech’. The Buddha does not argue with a philosophical opponent, but rather logically presents his case and is indifferent and disinterested in their response, regardless of whether they listen to his advice or not. This is because the Buddha believes that his words are free of the generation of personal karma (as he is an enlightened being who is beyond suffering), but that the wisdom expressed will have a positive effect upon the world at large. Truth is arrived at by looking into the mind and listening to those who have already trodden the Buddhist path and realised enlightenment. Right speech encourages a movement away from the ignorant gossip associated with the ordinary world, and instead directs all who hear it in the direction of right understanding and right thought. For right speech to be successful, the practice of habitually expressed wrong speech (premised upon greed, hatred, and delusion) must come to an end. Right speech is the expression of non-greed, non-hatred, and non-delusion.
4) Right Action. Behaviour modification is an important part of Buddhist meditational behaviour. Although behaviour is manifest through the physical body, all behaviour, according to the Buddha, originates within the mind and is the product of volitional thought. As the mind wills, so the body acts. As the body acts, so does the mind think. The Buddha views the mind and body as inherently linked, with one continuously influencing the other. Moderation of the body is not just limited to physical action, but includes also the actions of the mind in the form of the kind and type of thought it produces. Mind and body condition one another, and if the mind is to be changed through cultivation, the behaviour of the body must also be moderated away from its usual habits which are premised upon greed, hatred, and, delusion, and which produce continuous suffering. Good bodily action is premised upon non-greed, non-hatred, and non-delusion, and this is seen in the monkish and lay laws that the Buddha developed as a means to facilitate effective physical discipline. The primary vows that cover physical discipline are not to kill, not to steal, not to have dishonest dealings, not to partake in drinking intoxicants, and not to have illegitimate sexual experiences. Right action also includes the helping of others to achieve a good and peaceful life by exhibiting loving kindness and compassion which are guided by wisdom. Good action, according to the Buddha, is action built upon the principles of his teachings. Wrong action, by way of contrast, is premised upon greed, hatred, and delusion. Good action or conduct sets a good example for all to follow and has the potential to build will-power and a positive character. Right action creates the physical conditions for a peaceful and harmonious society. This is because the revolution has already occurred with the Buddha’s wholesale rejection of the Brahmanic religion and the society of his day, which was premised upon it. Good action is the rejection of religiosity and the embracing of reason and logic. When the mind thinks logically, the body will behave in a logical manner.
5) Right Livelihood. The Buddha advises three distinct groups of people to behave in a positive manner; the Sangha, the laity, and the kings and rulers. Specifically, right livelihood is the practice of engaging in an everyday activity of work that does not involve the direct, or indirect harming of other living beings. Prohibited professions include dealing in arms and weaponry, intoxicants, and alcohol, as well as killing animals, and deliberately misleading others. Dishonest and destructive jobs of work are discouraged as they are the source of suffering within the social sphere of influence. Negative professions spread pain and confusion throughout society, and create for the individual concerned, the experience of the requisite suffering associated with such willed actions. Right livelihood is in reality a warning about the generation and accumulation of negative karma for the individual, and for the group. Karma, it must be remembered, is not a moral judgement or a theistic punishment, but is rather simply the logical assessment of an action, or a set of actions, and the probable consequences experienced from such actions. Although exactly what constitutes good or bad karma is relative to the particular culture inhabited, the Buddha appears to universally condemn killing (of animals and humans), dishonesty, intoxication, and poisoning in his advice regarding a wholesome manner of making a living. His advice appears to be aimed at the masses of the common people, but it is clear from the Buddhist sutras that he also advises kings to voluntarily abide by a good standard of ethical behaviour in their private life, and when ruling the kingdom. The third group the Buddha address is the ordained Sangha – or community of Buddhist monks and nuns. Although originally there was no set of rules controlling and guiding monks and nuns in their everyday life, eventually a distinct body of prohibitions was gradually developed and termed the ‘vinaya’ or ‘monastic discipline’. This is comprised of hundreds of rules that strictly regulate the daily interactions with the outside world. These rules may be interpreted as an elaboration (or refinement) of the basic five prohibitions already mentioned. It is important to bear in mind that even in the early Buddhist literature, it is clear that not only monastics, but also laymen and women realised enlightenment, and that this apparent egalitarian approach must be taken into account when assessing the true purpose of the Buddha’s teaching. Right livelihood is the means to create less suffering in the mind and body of the individual, as well as in the minds and bodies of those inhabiting (and sharing) the immediate environment. This demonstrates a very high degree of social consciousness development (wisdom), and comradely solidarity (loving kindness and compassion).
6) Right Effort. In this regard, the Buddha recognises four distinct attributes to this practice of right effort; 1) Prevent evil and unwholesome states of mind from arising, 2) To quickly and effectively dispel any and all evil or unwholesome state that has already arisen, 3) To produce, and cause to arise, good and wholesome thoughts in the mind, that have not yet risen, and 4) To develop and bring to perfection any and all positive, good, and wholesome thoughts already present in the mind. The Buddha uses the concept of ‘right effort’ as the source of all good action, and the antidote to all negative states that arise in the mind and manifest through action in the physical world. Without the will-power to actively check and prevent the arising of greed, hatred, and delusion in the mind, no effective progress in self-cultivation can be made. If there is no energetic will present in the mind, the cycles of pain and suffering continue to function unabated. This is important as the Buddha linked will-power to karma-formation. Every ‘willed-action’ produces either good, bad, or neutral responses dependent upon local conditions. In the deluded mind, this process occurs haphazardly with no control, direction, or discipline, as the mind operates in an uncontrolled and disorganised manner. Right effort is the means of bringing the mind into order. It is the exact opposite of ‘uncontrolled’ and ‘disorganised’ and clearly represents ‘control’ and ‘organisation’ of the thought processes. Right effort is a matter of disciplining all of the processes of the mind, so that only good and positive psychological manifestations are developed and encouraged. Right effort is the development of the motivation that radically changes how the mind (and body) functions in the world. It is the fuel of all radical attainment, and the foundation of all revolution, for without it absolutely nothing different will ever happen either in the mind or world.
7) Right Mindfulness. Right Mindfulness is the exercise of a continuous and profound awareness in direct relation to the state (and functionality) of the mind-body nexus, and has four distinct characteristics:
a) Awareness of the activities of the body (kaya)
b) Awareness of the sensations or feelings (vedana)
c) Awareness of the activities of the mind (citta)
d) Awareness of ideas, thoughts, conceptions, and things (dhamma)
Without this precise awareness, the deluded mind (and its bodily habits) can not be perceived, understood, and corrected in any meaningful way. If a problem is not perceived at its source, then the problem that needs curing is not understood to exist and consequently no action can be taken to solve it. This is to say that if the presence of greed, hatred, and delusion are not clearly perceived in the mind (and understood as the basis of Buddhist delusion), then these taints carry on collectively functioning in the world, completely unhindered by boundary or regulatory principle. Where there is no functioning awareness in the mind of the practitioner, there is no mental or bodily restraint in operation. Unbridled delusion in this unaware state exists in the past, present, and future, and throughout the ten directions. Right mindfulness is a developed focus of mind that is the consequence of a total gathering and concentration of all psychic forces onto a single-point of reference. Within Buddhism, this advanced state of mind is achieved by listening to, and understanding the Buddhist teachings, reading and understanding the Buddhist sutras, and actively restraining and disciplining the mind and its processes during the practice of meditation. Right mindfulness, when developed correctly, is a safeguard against the presence of greed, hatred, and delusion in the mind, and the performance of negative bodily actions in the environment. Mindfulness ensures that positive rather than negative thoughts and actions influence the mind and physical world. In this regard, right mindfulness is closely associated with the production of loving kindness and compassion, as well as the generation of wisdom in all circumstances. Mindfulness as correct attentiveness, easily discerns the difference between pleasant, unpleasant, and neutral sensations in the body and mind, and whether greed, hatred, and delusion, is present in the mind and influencing functionality in the world. Through the propagation of right mindfulness, the Buddhist practitioner is able to change the habitually conditioned psychic patterns that arise in the mind (and the equally conditioned habit of body), from an inherently damaging and negative state of being, into that of a highly positive state of existence. It is interesting to note that included in this cultivation is the ability to perceive that thoughts arise, exist, and then pass away in the mind, and to understand that such is the changeable nature of thought in relation to the physical world it is designed to interpret. Although the physical world appears ‘static’ and ‘ever present’ in its apparent concreteness, nevertheless the Buddha teaches that everything exists in a state of flux, although to human perception, some things change at greater speeds than others. Whatever the case, the ‘changing’ physical world appears to confront the human mind that strives to interpret it through the bodily senses.
8) Right Concentration (Samma samadhi). Right concentration is the action of forcibly controlling the thought processes of the mind so that its entire psychic energy and activity is focused toward a singe-point of reference. This creates a laser-beam type gathering of psychic energy that has the ability to ‘see through’ the habitual conditioning of the mind and body. Right concentration is the essence of correct Buddhist meditation and without its cultivation, the methods of Buddhist meditation would not exist. The practice of right concentration is in fact the exercise of a stern mental discipline. The Buddha defines ‘right concentration’ as the achievement of the unification of mind. Within the Pali suttas (preserved within the Theravada tradition), right concentration is inherently linked to the realisation of the four jhana states of ‘form’, and the further four jhana states of ‘non-form’. The Maha Parinibbana Sutta states that the Buddha, (just prior to his attaining Parinibbana), first entered the four jhanic states of ‘form’, and then the jhanic states of ‘non-form’, before entering the state of cessation of perception and sensation. These states had already been attained by the Buddha during his realisation around 45 years prior to his death, but it is interesting to note that his transition from physical life to physical death entailed the purposeful travelling through of these eight jhanic states again. A jhanic state may be adequately described as a clearly defined ‘state’ or ‘stage’ of ‘meditational absorption’, or ‘meditational attainment’. The four jhanic states of ‘form’ and the four jhanic states of ‘non-form’ are defined as follows:
Four Jhana States of ‘Form’ (Rupavacara-jhana)
1st Jhana Stage
Detached from sense-desires, and unwholesome thoughts – one attains to the first jhanic state – which is the product of freedom gained through the development of non-attachment. Present in this state are the positive attributes of reasoning, reflection, joy and happiness
2nd Jhana Stage
With the stilling of the mind, and the subsequent elimination of reasoning and reflection – one attains to the second jhanic state – which is experienced as inner serenity. This is the realisation of a unified mind through the meditational practice of developing one-pointed concentration. The power of a mind under the influence of right concentration dissolves reasoning and reflection, and retains joy and happiness.
3rd Jhana Stage
Through developing mindfulness and awareness, non-attachment to joy is developed, and the third jhanic state of dwelling in equanimity, mindfulness, and happiness is established. This state of attainment is accompanied by the experience of bodily happiness.
4th Jhana Stage
Through the abandoning of happiness and suffering and by the disappearance of joy and sorrow – one enters the fourth jhanic state. This is the realisation of the state of neither happiness nor suffering, and the attainment of equanimity through mindfulness.
Four Jhana States of ‘Non-Form’ (Arūpavacara-jhāna)
5th Jhana Stage
This is the realisation of the dimension of infinite space. This is achieved through the dissolving (or uprooting) of the thought constructs relating to the perception of the dimensions of infinitude of space, as well as singleness of mind, contact, feeling, perception, intention, consciousness, desire, decision, persistence, mindfulness, equanimity, and attention.
6th Jhana Stage
This is the realisation of the dimension of infinite consciousness. This is achieved through the dissolving (or uprooting) of the thought constructs relating to the perception of the dimension of the infinitude of consciousness, as well as unification of mind, contact, feeling, perception, intention, consciousness, desire, decision, persistence, mindfulness, equanimity, and attention.
7th Jhana Stage
This is the realisation of the dimension of nothingness (which must not be mistaken for profound ‘emptiness’). This is achieved through the dissolving (or uprooting) of the thought constructs relating to the perception of the dimension of nothingness, as well as singleness of mind, contact, feeling, perception, intention, consciousness, desire, decision, persistence, mindfulness, equanimity, and attention.
8th Jhana Stage
This is the realisation of the dimension of neither perception nor non-perception. This is the perfected state which has no thought constructs to uproot and is the realisation of the state of profound emptiness (sunnata).
Right concentration (or ‘one-pointed concentration’) is not mentioned as an attribute of the first jhanic state because reasoning and reflection are still present in the mind. This means that although non-attachment and good behaviour have been developed through disciplining the mind and body, the mind is not as yet ‘stilled’ and still experiences the dualistic movement of thought and emotion. It is only in the second jhanic state that right concentration is recorded as being present, simply because it is a major attribute of the realisation of that state. However, it may be surmised that prior to the realisation of the second jhanic stage, ‘right concentration’ exists in its rudimentary and most basic form, and is the basis from which the discipline to achieve non-attachment (in the first jhanic stage) actually emerges. Although the Pali suttas do not mention right concentration as being present in the first jhanic state, the Abhidhamma literature of the Theravada School certainly assumes that this attribute is present. Indeed, out of this assumption, the Abhidhamma literature developed a ‘fifth’ jhanic state in the real of ‘form’, although strictly speaking this is not canonical. This fact does demonstrate that right concentration is logically believed to be the basis of all Buddhist cultivation, and that nothing can be achieved without its presence – even if that presence is in a rudimentary form. It is through the practice of right concentration (as one-pointed concentration), that the eight jhanic states of attainment (attha-samapati) are realised and then eventually left behind, and the transcendent state of the cessation of perceptions and sensations (sanna-vedayita-nirodha-samapatti) is attained. This attainment of the ‘cessation of perceptions and sensations’ should not be confused with the theoretical ‘fifth’ jhanic state which is speculated to exist within the ‘realm of form’ by the later monkish literature of the Theravada School, and which is not mentioned as existing by the Buddha within the Pali suttas. This Abhidhamma development speculates that as happiness and suffering are abandoned in the fourth jhanic state, the equanimity (upekkha) then realised should constitute a separate and distinct ‘fifth’ jhanic state existing within the real of form, which is solely comprised of ‘equanimity’.
This is really an unnecessary subdivision of the fourth jhanic state into a fifth. For the logic of the Abhidhamma model to make sense and stand up to scrutiny, then ‘right concentration’ has to be imported into the first jhanic state, an assumption that contradicts the teachings of the Buddha as found in the suttas. When right concentration is not present as a developed attribute in the first jhanic state, then the fourth jhanic state can not be subdivided into a separate and distinct ‘fifth’ state, and the logic employed by the Abhidhamma model breaks down. Whatever the case, the theoretical ‘fifth’ jhanic state, as proposed through the Abhidhamma model, should not be confused with Buddha’s definite realisation of the state of cessation of perceptions and sensations. This is because this state is not included as a jhanic realisation by the Buddha, and is treated in the suttas as a separate and distinct realisation beyond the jhanic states. [3]
The omission of right concentration as a developed attribute in the first jhanic state, explains why Buddhist masters and teachers often emphasis moral discipline (sila) as a means to calm the mind and moderate behaviour. It is assumed that a beginner, starting out on the path of purification, will not possess the strength of mind or body associated with developed right concentration, and will need a more peripheral practice. The practice of following vows and becoming aware of the activities of the mind, lays the foundation for this development. Through the establishment of non-attachment, the control of the body increases as the activity of the mind diminishes. This dual approach allows for the mind to be disciplined in such a manner, so that its energies are brought to focus upon a single point. Right concentration is present in the first jhanic state, but in an as of yet not fully developed or realised condition. When right concentration is fully developed in the mind, it is finally acknowledged as effectively existing in the second jhanic state by the Buddha. This is an important point, as it is only through the development of right concentration that meditation can be correctly and effectively practiced, and the higher jhanic (and trans-jhanic state) attained within the system of Buddhist practice.
This article continues with: Marxist Critique of the Four Noble Truths - Conclusion
©opyright: Adrian Chan-Wyles (ShiDaDao) 2014.
[1] Thera, Piyadassi, The Buddha’s Ancient Path, Munshiram Manoharlal, (2005), Chapter 7, the Fourth Noble truth, Right Understanding, Page 96 – reference 4 A ii. 52.
[2] Thera, Piyadassi, The Buddha’s Ancient Path, Munshiram Manoharlal, (2005), Chapter 7, the Fourth Noble truth, Right Understanding, Page 96 – reference 1 S. ii. 23. Discourses 7, 8, 9 abridged.
[3] Rahula, Walpola, Zen & the Taming of the Bull – Towards the Definition of Buddhist Thought, Gordon Fraser, (1978), Pages 101-109 – Chapter 10: A Comparative Study of Dhaynas according to Theravada, Sarvastivada and Mahayana. In this research, the Ven. Rahula demonstrates that the Sarvastivada and Mahayana Schools retain a teaching regarding the jhanic states that is closer to the original Pali suttas, than that developed within the later Theravada Abhidhamma tradition which postulates a ‘fifth’ jhana existing in the realm of ‘form’, even though the Buddha makes no mention of this.